Acute Neurological Health Challenges (Week 6) Flashcards

1
Q

When older people suffer spinal cord injury (SCI), it is usually more?

A

traumatic, more complicated, and results in longer hospitalization.

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2
Q

Tetraplegia

A

is the correct term for quadriplegia; arms and legs all paralyzed.

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3
Q

What is tetraplegia caused by?

A

It is caused by spinal cord damage at the C8 vertebrae or above. Most anatomical charts only show 7 cervical vertebrae. In this case, C8 must be what is usually referred to as T1.

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4
Q

The major problems associated with SCIs are:

A

1) Disruption of individual growth and development.
2) Altered family dynamics.
3) Economic loss d/t absence from work.
4) High cost of rehabilitation and long term healthcare.

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5
Q

The most common causes of SCIs are:

A

1) Motor vehicle (and motorcycle) collisions.
2) Falls and industrial accidents.
3) Sportsinjuries.
4) Medical conditions.
5) Violence.

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6
Q

There are four types of actions that can damage spinal cord components:

A

1) Compressive forces.
2) Traction forces.
3) Interruption of blood supply.
4) Penetrating forces (i.e. knife or gunshot).

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7
Q

Primary spinal cord injury

A

is the initial symptoms that occur at the time of the initial trauma d/t the disruption in nerve function.

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8
Q

Secondary spinal cord injury

A

is the ongoing, progressive damage that occurs after the initial injury.

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9
Q

Most of the secondary damage that occurs is due to?

A

ischemia causing cell death in affected tissues. The ischemia is usually due to vasoconstriction from the release of vasoactive chemicals from the damaged tissues or edema. It occurs because of the “housed” nature of spinal cord components; there is little room for expansion so, when things swell up, the damage is severe. Hemorrhage is also a cause of expansion and tissue hypoxia.

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10
Q

There are two types of shock that occur in many patients following an SCI, what are they?

A

spinal shock and neurogenic shock.

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11
Q

Spinal shock

A

includes decreased reflexes, loss of sensation, and flaccid paralysis below the level of injury. Think of spinal
shock as being an exaggerated state of damage that is temporary; it usually resolves in days to months.

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12
Q

Neurogenic shock

A

results from a decrease in vasomotor function (vasodilation/constriction) in events where spinal cord damage occurs at the T5 vertebrae or above. It is associated with a loss of (excitatory) sympathetic nervous function. Excessive vasodilation occurs and we see symptoms of hypotension, venous pooling and warm, dry extremities. Also, the loss of sympathetic cardiac excitation results is bradycardia and decreased cardiac output. In summary, neurogenic shock = hypotension, bradycardia, and warm, dry extremities. The severity of the neurogenic shock symptoms depends on the level of the injured vertebrae. Starts at T5 (less severe neurogenic shock) and increases as we move upwards to the cervical column.

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13
Q

Classification of spinal cord injury is by:

A

1) Mechanism of injury.
2) Level of injury.
3) The degree of injury.
* * Think of these as “how it happened” “where it happened” and “how much damage.”

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14
Q

Mechanisms of injury include the ways the spinal cord was moved that caused the injury. These are?

A

1) Flexion.
2) Hyperextension.
3) Flexion-rotation. Most severe because it results in ligamentous tearing in the cord.
4) Extension-rotation.
5) Compression.

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15
Q

The level of injury is classified by?

A

skeletal level and the neurological level

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16
Q

The skeletal level of injury

A

refers to which vertebrae the most damage occurred at.

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17
Q

The neurological level of injury

A

is indicated by the lowest vertebrae that still has normal function.

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18
Q

The degree of injury is classified as either?

A

complete or incomplete spinal cord involvement.

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19
Q

Complete spinal cord involvement

A

results in a total loss of sensory and motor function below the level of the lesion.

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20
Q

Incomplete spinal cord involvement

A

results in partial losses of sensory and motor function below the level of the lesion.

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21
Q

Complete spinal cord injury is absolute; all the nervous pathways are severed. Incomplete spinal cord involvement, however, is classified into six different syndromes, what are they?

A

1) Central cord syndrome
2) Anterior cord syndrome
3) Brown-Sequard syndrome
4) Posterior cord syndrome
5) conus medullaris syndrome
6) cauda equina syndrome

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22
Q

Central cord syndrome

A

is damage to the central spinal cord. It involves motor weakness and loss of sensory function and the symptoms are greater in the upper extremities.

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23
Q

Anterior cord syndrome

A

is caused by damage to the anterior spinal cord artery and usually results from severe compression in flexion injury. In it, we see motor paralysis and a loss of temperature and pain sensations below the level of injury. Because the posterior nerve tracts are responsible for conduction of touch, position, vibration, and motion senses, these sensations are not affected.

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24
Q

Brown-Sequard syndrome

A

is caused by damage to one half (left or right) of the spinal cord. With it, we see spastic paralysis (everything pulls together and locks up), loss of vibration and position senses, and vasomotor paralysis on the same side as the injury (ipsilateral). The contralateral side sees a loss of pain and temperature sensations.

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25
Q

Posterior cord syndrome

A

results from compression or other damage to the posterior spinal artery. Touch, vibration, motion, and position senses are lost but pain, temperature, and motor function are unaffected.

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26
Q

The conus medullaris syndrome and the cauda equina syndrome

A

occur due to damage in the lumbar portions of the spinal cord. They involve lumbar and sacral nerves and result in paralysis of the legs and a loss of bladder and bowel function.

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27
Q

When we have a client with a recent SCI in clinical, the priorities are? (think ABCs)

A

1) Maintaining a patent airway.
2) Ensuring respiratory function.
3) Ensuring adequate circulating blood volume.
4) Preventing further cord damage.

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28
Q

Damage at C4 or above can result in?

A

total loss of respiratory function and mechanical ventilation will be required to keep the patient alive.

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29
Q

Damage at C4 or below can see the loss of most?

A

Breathing muscles. If the phrenic nerve remains intact, the client will exhibit diaphragmatic breathing. Because of the loss of the other breathing muscles, affecting lung volumes, diaphragmatic breathing usually involves hyperventilation.

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30
Q

When abdominal and intercostal muscles are affected, such as with cervical and thoracic sc injuries, what happens?

A

Coughing becomes ineffective; the patient cannot cough out their lung secretions which leads to atelectasis and pneumonia. Neurogenic pulmonary edema can also occur.

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31
Q

SC injuries at T5 or above cause?

A

impaired sympathetic nervous system function and bradycardia and peripheral vasodilation can occur. This vasodilation results in a state of relative hypovolemia. If bradycardia is severe enough <40bpm, drugs to increase the heart rate such as atropine (epinephrine) will be administered. If the relative hypovolemia results in low enough blood pressures, IV fluids to increase volume will be administered.

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32
Q

atonic bladder

A

loss of muscle tone that compromises urinary elimination.

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33
Q

What happens to the urinary system with a SC injury?

A

Spinal cord injuries can often initially result in an atonic bladder (loss of muscle tone) that compromises urinary elimination. Sometime later, in the post-acute period, the bladder can become hyperirritable resulting in reflex emptying. Indwelling catheters are frequently used in the acute phase, but, because of the risk of infection, intermittent catheterization is preferable once the client has stabilized and high-volume IV fluid supplementation is no longer required.

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34
Q

What happens to the GI system with a SC injury?

A

When the sc injury is at T5 or above, GI problems are associated with gastric hypomotility. Paralytic ileus and gastric distension may occur. A nasogastric suction tube may be used to relieve this distension. Metoclopramide, an antiemetic, can be used to improve gastric emptying. Excessive HCl in the stomach can result in stress ulcers, which can be avoided with the use of medications such as Zantac and Pepcid. Intraabdominal bleeding can also occur, which is difficult to detect. Look for continued hypotension, decreased HGb and hematocrit, and expanding abdominal girth.
Bowel symptoms are much like the urinary symptoms. In the acute phase, the bowels are somewhat paralyzed. In the post- acute phase, they may become hyperirritable and result in reflex emptying.

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35
Q

What happens to the Integumentary system with a SC injury?

A

Lack of movement d/t paralysis can result in pressure ulcers, especially over areas of bony prominence. Turning or rotation schedules must be implemented with extreme caution, if at all, because of the possibility of exacerbating the SCI.

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36
Q

What happens to thermoregulation with a SC injury?

A

In the event of an SCI, afferent temperature sensory pathways may be impaired, preventing the brain from sensing the external environment. There may also be an impaired ability to temperature regulate by shivering or sweating. The result is poikilothermism, the adjustment of body temperature to room temperature. As with most things SCI, the level and degree of injury correspond to the impairment of the body’s thermoregulatory systems (higher=worse).

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37
Q

What happens to metabolic needs with a SC injury?

A

If nasogastric suctioning is used, depletion of the body’s acid may result in metabolic alkalosis and electrolytes can be lost resulting in imbalances. Hypotension and hypovolemia may result in decreased tissue perfusion (=↑ CO2) and acidosis. The spinal cord injured patient’s metabolic needs usually increase significantly, despite their immobility, and can benefit from a high- protein, high-nitrogen diet.

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38
Q

What are some peripheral vascular problems that come with a SC injury?

A

With immobility, there is a great risk of developing DVTs or VTEs and can result in a pulmonic embolus. This risk is greatest in the first three months following the traumatic event.

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39
Q

XRays are used to determine?

A

the presence of damage.

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40
Q

CTs are used to assess?

A

the specific location, degree, and stability of bony injury as well as soft and neural tissue changes.

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41
Q

MRIs are used to?

A

assess changes in the event of neurological problems.

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42
Q

Vertebral angiography (contrast dye imaging) is used in

A

cervical SCIs with altered mental status to rule out vertebral artery damage.

43
Q

After the injured person’s spine is stabilized at the scene of the injury, they are transferred into an acute care unit. Injuries involving T5 and above have systemic symptomology, such as?

A

bradycardia, hypotension, and respiratory compromise, and require more intensive care than lower injuries resulting in mainly losses of sensation and/or motor function.

44
Q

Muscle testing is done on the basis of?

A

Muscle groups; not individual muscles.

45
Q

Touch and pain sensation can be tested with?

A

pinpricking in various dermatomes.

46
Q

Touch and temperature sensation can be tested with?

A

Ice.

47
Q

Position and vibration senses can be tested if?

A

time and resources permit.

48
Q

Because, in the event of SCI, people often hit their head, the nurse should always asses?

A

bouts of unconsciousness, signs of concussion, and increased cranial pressures.

49
Q

Various internal organs may be assessed with specific procedures, what are they?

A

Are they voiding and eliminating? Is there gastric distension? Are there signs of internal bleeding such as expanding abdominal girth or presence of blood in urine or stool?

50
Q

Nonoperative treatments of the SCI involve?

A

stabilizing and decompressing the injured vertebral section. This reduces further secondary spinal cord injury by eliminating damaging movement at the site of the injury.

51
Q

Surgical interventions are mainly focused on?

A

stabilizing the spinal cord and relieving compression. Additionally, they are used to remove bony fragments from circulation and to repair penetrating injuries. Penetrating injuries are where the dura, the spinal cord “wrapping” gets punctured, such as with a knife or bullet wound.

52
Q

A laminectomy is?

A

a surgical procedure where the anterior or posterior portion of the injured vertebrae is removed to allow the surgical fusion and stabilization of the surrounding vertebrae. Fusion is performed using slices of bone, lengths of acrylic wire, and/or steel rods.

53
Q

Drug therapy using methylprednisone is used to?

A

prevent edema and inflammatory responses that contribute to spinal cord tissue ischemia. It is only effective if it is administered within 8 hours of the initial injury and is usually maintained for about 48 hours. The adverse effects of methylprednisone include immunosuppression and increased risk of infection as well as increased risk of GI bleeding.

54
Q

Vasopressor agents, such as dopamine, are used to?

A

offset the hypotension that occurs d/t sympathetic NS inhibition and peripheral vasodilation.

55
Q

Planning for nursing management of patients with SCI are focused on :

A

1) Maintaining an optimal level of neurological functioning.
2) Minimize or eliminate the complications of immobility.
3) Learn new skills, acquire new knowledge, and acquire new behaviours to care for self or direct others to.
4) Return to home and community at an optimal level of function.

56
Q

Nursing interventions for injury prevention include?

A

education and support of legislation regarding use of helmets, child safety seats, and increased penalties for drunk driving.

57
Q

After an SCI, nursing interventions should focus holistically on the person and include the usual:

A

1) Diet and exercise.
2) Smoking cessation.
3) Alcohol intake reduction.

58
Q

halo fixation device

A

In a stable injury where surgery was not performed, cervical stabilization and traction can be achieved with a halo fixation device. The halo device allows the client to be more active which promotes recovery.

59
Q

traction therapy

A

it is performed by attaching tongs or a sling to the head that are attached via cable to a force- inducing system. The duration of traction therapy, where traction is maintained at all times, is usually 1 to 4 weeks. When tongs are attached to the head via skull pins, there is the added risk of infection at those sites.

60
Q

kinetic therapy beds

A

slowly turn from side to side to constantly redistribute pressure and reduce the risk of developing pressure sores.

61
Q

Regular respiratory assessments should be performed, including:

A

1) Adventitious lung sounds.
2) Arterial blood gases.
3) Lung capacities (tidal and vital) 4) Skin color.
5) Breathing patterns (esp use of accessory muscles).
6) Subjective comments about the ability to breathe.
7) The volume and color of sputum.

62
Q

A client should be able to count out loud to ten in one breath. If they cannot, they require?

A

respiratory intervention.

63
Q

Respiratory interventions include?

A

1) Assisted coughing, a procedure where the nurse thrusts upwards against the bottom of the sternum, can help the client to mobilize lung secretions.
2) Tracheal suctioning may be indicated if crackles or wheezes are present.

64
Q

Interventions for cardiovascular instability.

A

1) medications
2) compression stalkings
3) administration of blood
* these depend on the patient*

65
Q

There are many reasons why an SCI client may become anorexic, such as:

A

1) Depression.
2) Boredom with hospital food.
3) Discomfort at being fed.

66
Q

Catabolism often occurs in the event of an SCI. What is it?

A

It is the body breaking down its own tissues for energy. Think “cannibal.” To offset catabolic effects, a high protein, high calorie, diet should be administered.

67
Q

Care should be taken to ensure a client’s adequate nutritional intake, such as:

A

1) Providing a pleasant eating environment.
2) Allowing ample time for eating.
3) Encouraging the family to bring in special foods.
4) Planning social rewards for dietary compliance.

68
Q

Acute interventions for bladder and bowel control.

A

Often, an indwelling catheter will be used in this period of SCI treatment. Once the post-acute phase has arrived, the indwelling catheter can be removed and intermittent catheterization begun. Intermittent catheterization should be performed every 3-4 hours to prevent urinary stasis and bacterial growth. The acute phase of bowel function insufficiency can be addressed with the liberal application of laxatives.

69
Q

Acute interventions for temperature control.

A

Because of vasodilation, loss of temperature sensation, lack of piloerection, and loss of shivering and sweating, the SCI client’s thermoregulation can be severely compromised. Their body will simply adjust to room temperature. This is called poikilothermism. Blankets should be used to retain their body heat and their temperature should be closely monitored.
SCI patients may also develop a fever and require cooling, such as with a cooling blanket.

70
Q

Acute interventions for stress ulcers.

A

Food should be given with the corticosteroids. Histamine H2 receptor blocker medications such as Pepcid or Zantac may be administered to offset the acidic damage to the stomach wall. Proton pump inhibitors, such as omeprazole or pantoprazole (note the –zole suffix) may be given prophylactically to decrease the stomach’s production of HCl.

71
Q

Acute interventions for sensory deprivation.

A

Because of the sensory impairment that often comes with an SCI, these clients should be stimulated otherwise to avoid their withdrawing from the environment. Music, television, reading, aromatherapy, and flavorful foods can help to prevent this from happening.

72
Q

Acute interventions for reflexes.

A

Once the spinal cord shock has resolved, the client’s reflexes often come back hyperexaggerated. They will often exhibit spastic movement ranging from twitches to convulsions that may require antispasmodic medications such as baclofen (Lioresal), dantrolene (Dantrium), and tizanidine (Zanaflex).

73
Q

Status epilicticus

A

is a state of nonstop convulsions that can accompany autonomic dysreflexia. Autonomic dysreflexia can also result in stroke, MI, and death.

74
Q

Autonomic dysreflexia

A

is a condition involving the autonomic (organs) nervous system and can occur in clients with sc injury at T6 or higher. It occurs as the client regains their reflexes as a response to visceral stimulation.

75
Q

AD occurs when?

A

the visceral stimulation, all the organs below the level of the sc lesion reflexively constrict. This causes blood pressure to spike and baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinus respond by lowering the heart rate. Because of the lack of ability to peripherally vasodilate, however, BP does not decrease.

76
Q

AD can be detected by?

A

Close BP monitoring. Client’s complaining of a headache should be very closely monitored.

77
Q

When AD occurs, the client’s head should be?

A

elevated to 45 degrees or sitting upright

78
Q

neurogenic bladder

A

is any type of bladder dysfunction related to absent or abnormal enervation. Neurogenic bladders may see decreased or increased detrusor function or a lack of coordination with detrusor constriction and urethral relaxation. Urinary retention or incontinence may result.

79
Q

Seizures

A

are events sudden, uncontrolled, intense electrical discharge from neurons in the brain that interrupt normal function
and lead to involuntary contractions of muscle groups. They are often symptoms of other, underlying illness.

80
Q

Epilepsy

A

is a condition in which a person has at least two spontaneous seizures more than 24 hours apart. It is caused by a chronic underlying pathology.

81
Q

The most common causes of seizures during the first six months of life:

A

1) Birth Injury
2) Congenital Defects
3) Infections
4) Metabolic Problems

82
Q

The most common causes of seizures between 2-20 yrs:

A

1) Birth Injury
2) Infection
3) Trauma
4) Genetic Factors

83
Q

The most common causes of seizures between 20-30 yrs:

A

1) Structural Lesions i.e. Trauma, Brain Tumors, or Vascular Disease

84
Q

The most common causes of seizures after 50 yrs:

A

1) Cerebrovascular Lesions

2) Metastatic Brain Tumors

85
Q

Idiopathic seizure

A

causes remain unknown

86
Q

generalized seizure

A

when the whole brain is involved

87
Q

astrocytes

A

CNS “maintenance” cells

88
Q

What do astrocytes do?

A

release glutamate, which triggers neurons to fire. With this knowledge, medication to control epilepsy is now focusing on reducing astrocyte’s production of glutamate, their signaling mechanism.

89
Q

Depending on the type of seizure, they may be up to four phases involved:

A

1) Prodromal Phase
2) Aural Phase
3) Ictal Phase
4) Postictal Phase

90
Q

Prodromal Phase

A

This is the phase before the seizure that may include signs or activity indicative of the coming event.

91
Q

Aural Phase

A

This also occurs before the seizure and is identifiable by the sensory disturbances that accompany it.

92
Q

Ictal Phase

A

This is the convulsive phase of the seizure

93
Q

Postictal Phase

A

This is the recovery period following the seizure.

94
Q

Tonic-clonic seizures

A

are the most common generalized seizure. The person will lose consciousness, fall to the ground, and their body will stiffen (tonic phase) for 10-20 seconds followed by 30-40 seconds of jerking the extremities (clonic phase). In the postictal phase, the client will have muscle soreness and likely need to sleep. Cyanosis, excessive salivation, tongue or cheek biting, and incontinence may accompany this type of seizure. Both tonic and clonic seizures may occur independently; they don’t necessarily always happen together.

95
Q

Typical absence seizures

A

usually only occur in children and rarely continue beyond adolescence. It begins as a brief staring spell followed by an extremely brief loss of consciousness. When untreated, these seizures may occur up to 100 times a day. Children with these types of seizures are often misdiagnosed as having attention deficit disorders. Hyperventilation and flashing lights may precipitate absence seizures.

96
Q

Atypical absence seizures

A

begin as a brief staring spell but do not necessarily progress to unconsciousness. Instead, there may be other signs and symptoms such as peculiar behaviour during the seizure and confusion afterwards. ** Atypical absence seizures may have warning signs that appear before the staring spell begins.

97
Q

Myoclonic seizure

A

A sudden jerk of the body or the extremities. It is basically a massive twitch.

98
Q

Atonic seizure

A

When someone suddenly drops to the ground. It may be precipitated by a tonic period. Consciousness usually returns by the time the person hits the ground. These people are generally good to go after the event but are at risk of head injury and sometimes wear helmets.

99
Q

Partial seizures are divided into two categories:

A

simple and complex

100
Q

When a seizure occurs, the nurse should observe and record all details, including:

A

1) What events precipitated the seizure?
2) When did the seizure occur?
3) How long did each phase (of the four) last?
4) What occurred during each phase? (tongue-biting, loss of consciousness, stiffening, jerking, etc.)

101
Q

Simple partial seizures

A

do not involve loss of consciousness and rarely last for more than 1 minute. They may involve motor, autonomic, or sensory phenomena or a combination of them.

102
Q

Complex partial seizures

A

can involve behavioural, cognitive, emotional, and/or affective symptomology, and usually originate from a temporal lobe focal point (aka temporal lobe seizure). They usually last for more than one minute and are frequently followed by a period of postictal confusion. The primary distinction between complex and partial seizures is the involvement of changes in consciousness (in complex ones). Complex partial seizures often involve lip-smacking or other repetitive, inappropriate movements (automatisms) like pill-rolling. Often, the person undergoing a complex partial seizure will continue with whatever activity they were previously involved in but, after the seizure, will have no recollection of events that occurred in the seizure period. Auditory and visual hallucinations may occur, and the person may experience déjà vu. Some people will experience heightened or depressed sexual impulses (or erectile dysfunction) following a seizure of this type.

103
Q

Psychosocial complications

A

of seizure disorders include the stigma of loss of control or independence. People with these medical problems may be discriminated against in finding employment and may be prohibited from driving. In Canada, driving prohibition varies by province and ranges from 3 months (BC) to a year (AB). Many (42%) of seizure patients will experience depression. For those that do, depressive symptoms may be relieved by treating the seizure disorder and preventing seizures from recurring.

104
Q

Most seizures do not require emergent medical care, with the exception of:

A

1) First-time seizures.

2) Treatment for injury incurred during seizure.
3) Status epilepticus.