AC2.3 Sociological theories of criminality

Question 1

Describe Durkheims theory

Answer 1

Crime is inevitable - modern era - obvious injustices - not everyone restricted to same set of values
Crime allows for social cohesion - brings people together
Moral instruction takes place during sanctions e.g prison - warning to the rest of society
Mass media fuels moral instruction

Question 2

According to Durkheim what are the 4 functions of crime

Answer 2

Clarify social boundaries e.g zero-tolerance policing - New York
Bring about social change + reform - euthanasia debate
Strengthen social cohesion - concentrates upright consciences - James Bulger
Safety valve - (Davis found that prostitution - releases mens sexual frustrations - not threaten the nuclear family)

Question 3

What are three ways crime functions for social order
Durkheim

Answer 3

Clarify social boundaries e.g zero-tolerance policing - New York
Bring about social change + reform - euthanasia debate
Strengthen social cohesion - concentrates upright consciences - James Bulger

Question 4

Strengths of Durkheims theory

Answer 4

Durkheim - first to recognize crime can have positive functions for society - reinforcing boundaries + using moral instruction to unite against wrongdoer

Question 5

Weaknesses of Durkheims theory

Answer 5

Claims society requires certain amount of deviance to function but offers no way of knowing the RIGHT AMOUNT
Crime is functional for some - NOT the victims

Question 6

What does mertons strain theory state

Answer 6

The root of crime lies in an unequal society - blocked opportunities to achieve society’s goals by legitimate means cause individuals to use criminal means

Question 7

what are the 4 possible ways for people to adapt to the strain between what society says they should aim to achieve and their legitimate means to do so ?

Answer 7

Innovation - accept the goal but find illegal means of achieving it (utilitarian crimes)
Ritualism - give up striving for success - accept dead-end job
Retreatism - retreatists are dropouts who reject both goals and means
Rebellion - rebel rejects existing goals and means - replacing them with new ones that aim to change society e.g political radicals and alternative culture e.g hippies

Question 8

What are 2 strengths of mertons strain theory

Answer 8

Shows how both deviant and normal behaviour arise from the same goals - Conformists and innovators pursue ‘money success’ but in diff ways
Explains patterns shown in statistics - most crime is property crime because society values wealth highly, working class crime is high as they have less means to have financial success legitimately

Question 9

what are the weaknesses of mertons strain theory

Answer 9

Merton ignores crimes of the wealthy and over-predicts the crime of the working class

Merton focuses on financial crime

Assumes all people begin with same goals - not true - cultural differences more present each day

Question 10

what do subcultural theories of crime argue

Answer 10

subcultures enable their members to gain status by illegitimate means

Question 11

desribe Cohens status fraustration theory

Answer 11

Agrees with Merton - HOWEVER Cohen sees subcultural deviance as a group response to failure not individual
Focuses on non-utilitarian crime e.g vandalism
Working-class boys end up at the bottom of schools’ official status hierarchy
Subculture - offers solution - alternative status hierarchy in which they can win respect from their peers via delinquent actions - inverts society’s values

Question 12

What are the strengths of subcultural theories of crime

Answer 12

Show how subcultures perform a function for their members
Cloward + Ohlin - show how diff types of neighbourhood give rise to different illegitimate opportunities

Question 13

What are the weaknesses of subcultural theories of crime

Answer 13

LIKE Merton - ignore crimes of wealthy + over predict amount of working class crime
Assume everyone starts with mainstream goals + turns to subculture when they fail to achieve them - some people don’t share these goals in first place - may be attracted to crime for other reasons
Actual subcultures are not as clear as suggested by Cloward + Ohlin claim - some show characteristics of all 3

Question 14

What does the marxist theory of crime argue

Answer 14

all classescommitt crime but selective law enforcment means crime appears only as WC issue
Capitalism is criminogenic (root cause of all crime) and is used by the bourgeoisie as a form of social control
Institutions - encourage you to conform e.g police
White-collar crimes are ignored
The proletariat is more heavily policed - therefore crimes are detected more easily
Governments fabricate statistics to suit themselves + get public support for trespassing on people’s freedoms

Question 15

describe Cloward + Ohlins three subculutre theory

Answer 15

Different neighbourhoods give rise to different subcultures
Criminal subcultures - arise in areas of longstanding professional crime - adopt youth into criminal ‘apprenticeship’
Conflict subcultures - arise where only criminal opportunities are within street gangs - violence allows for the release of frustration + a sense of status
Retreats subcultures - made up of dropouts - both in criminal + legitimate criminal structures - based on drug use

Question 16

What are the strengths of the marxist theory of crime and law

Answer 16

Shows how poverty + inequality can cause working class crime - and how capitalism promotes ruling class crime
Shows how both law making + law enforcement are biased against the working class

Question 17

what do marxists say about crime and law being an ideology

Answer 17

Marxists argue that crime and the law are an ideology formed to conceal the inequality of capitalist society e.g
Selective enforcement - makes crime seem as the fault of the working class - this divides work = and shifts attention away from ruling class crime
Laws to protect workers are there to give capitalism a ‘caring face’ - Pearce

Question 18

what do marxists say about the making + enforcemnt of the law

Answer 18

Chambliss - argues that laws are made to protect the private property of the rich e.g - laws against squatting but not owning 15 homes
Enforcement of the law:
Marxists - agree with interactionalists that the law is enforced selectively - against the working class but not the upper classes - white collar corporate crimes of the rich are less likely to be prosecuted
Carson found that only 3/200 companies that had broken safety laws were prosecuted

Question 19

what are the weaknesses of the marxist theory of crime and law

Answer 19

Focuses on class - ignores relationship between crime + other ineqaulities
Over predicts amount of working class crime
Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates - Capitalsit soceities with little welfare provision have higher crime rates

Question 20

what is the interactionalist theory

Answer 20

Interactionalists see our interactions with one another based on meanings or labels. For example, the label ‘criminal’ may be attached by police officers to others such as young people.

no act is inherently ‘deviant’, but is only as such because people have labelled it to be a criminal act.

Question 21

what does the labelling theory state

Answer 21

No act is deviant or criminal in itself it is only when society creates rules and applies them, that crime is a social constructpeople are made to act in a negative way because of the label they are given by the society

Question 22

What do interactionalists say about the differntial enforcement of the law

1. What did Cicourel find

Answer 22

Interactionalsit argue social control groups label groups as criminal resulting in differential enforcement of the law
Cicourel - police use typifications of the ‘typical delinquent’ - working class + ethnic minority

Question 23

describe Lemerts self fulfilling prochecy idea

Answer 23

Lemert - labelling encourages people to commit criminal acts - explained through two types of deviance
1. Primary deviance - acts that are not publicly labelled e.g bumping train
2. Secondary deviance - results from labelling - people may treat offenders with a label that then becomes master status -> the offender may be rejected from society and forced into a deviant subculture

Question 24

Desribe what and deviancy amplification is and what cohen found when studying mods and rockers

Answer 24

Attempts to control deviance by intense crackdown have the opposite effect - promoting more attempts to control it and therefore more deviance
Causes of deviancy amplification spiral (Cohen + Mods and Rockers):
Negative labelling
Moral entrepreneurs
Media exaggeration

Question 25

what are the weakness of the interactionalist theory

Answer 25

TOODETERMINISTIC - It wrongly implies that once someone is labelled a deviant carer is inevitable

Emphasis on negative effects of offenders gives them the ‘victim’ status when the victims of the crime they commit are ignored as a result

Fails to explain why people commit primary deviance

Does Not explain where the power to label comes from - focuses on officials such as the police who apply labels rather than on capitalist class who make the rules

Fails to explain why labels are applied to other groups (aside from working class)

Question 26

what are the strengths of the interactionalsit theory

Answer 26

Holds police guilty - police create crime by applying labels based on their stereotypes ‘typifications’
Shows how attempts to control deviance are not always effective can trigger a deviance amplification spiral and create more deviance

Question 27

what do interactionalists say about crime statistics

Answer 27

REJECT use of crime statistics complied by police - they argue they are a measure of what the police do rather than what criminals do
For example - police stereotype working-class males -> more resources dedicated -> more working-class males in statistics -> more resources dedicated = less focus and resources dedicated to other crimes e.g white collar

Question 28

what do right realists argue

Answer 28

Crime is a real problem that needs to be tackled and not a social construction created by control agencies
Argue there has been a rise in the crime rate
They are concerned about the widespread fear of crime and its impact on its victims
Argue that other theories have failed to offer realistic solutions to the problem
The best way to reduce crime is through control and punishment
This theory bases its views on rational choice theory, criminals are rational actors who weigh up the risks and rewards before deciding whether to commit crimes

Question 29

Who created the square of crime and what does it state

Answer 29

4 elements of crime must be looked at in order to reduce it: State, Informal controls, Victim, Offender
Lea and Young

Question 30

According to right realists what are the causes of crime

Answer 30

Crime is the product of 3 factors:

biological differences between individuals, inadequate socialisation, offending is a rational choice

Question 31

What do right realists say about biological differences between individuals

Answer 31

Wilson and Herrnstein - biological differences make some individuals more likely to commit a crime, personality traits associated with criminality e.g aggressiveness are innate

Question 32

What do right realists say about inadeqaute socialisation ?

Answer 32

Effective socialisation can reduce the chances of someone offending by teaching them self-control and correct values - the nuclear family is the best agency of socialisation
Murray - welfare benefits underwhelm nuclear family, he argues it has led to a steady rise in benefit reliant lone-parent families (fathers no longer need to remain in the home + work for their family)
Murray - an underclass is being created by welfare dependency who fail to socialise their children properly

Question 33

What do right realists say about offending is a rational choice?

Answer 33

An important part of right realism is rational choice theory (RCT) - we have free will
Right realists argue that the crime rate is high because the perceived costs of crime are low e.g little risk of being caught
Felsons routine activity theory -states a presence of a guardian is likely to deter an offender

Question 34

what do right realists say the solutions to crime are

Answer 34

Right realists do not believe in dealing with biological differences - natural + innate - dealing with socialisation is difficult
Choose to focus on rational choice theory - making crime less attractive + raising costs of committing crime
Crime prevention policies should therefore reduce the rewards and increase cost of committing crime
Introduction of ‘target hardening’ - right realist advocate the greater use of prisons - making sure punishments follow the act as quickly as possible
Introduction of zero tolerance

Question 35

What are the key ideas of left realism

Answer 35

Developed in 80’/90’s
See society as an unequal capitalist system
Believe in gradual change rather than a violent overthrow of capitalism
We need practical explanations of crime that offer solutions to reduce it
Tackle the root of crime e.g unemployment
Look at crime on an individual level - what factors cause the individual to commit a crime
Ensure schools are funded properly, ensure apprenticeships are opened up to those likely to commit crime

Question 36

What do right realists suggest the solutions to crime are

Answer 36

Right realists do not believe in dealing with biological differneces - natural + innate - dealing with socialisation is difficult
Choose to focus on rational choice theory - making crime less attractive + raising costs of committing crime
Crime prevention policies should therfore reduce the rewards and increase cost of comitting crime
Introduction of ‘tagert hardending’ - right realisst advocate the greature use of prisons - making sure punishments followes the adct as quickly as possible
Introduction of zero tolerance

Question 37

according to left realists what are the three causes of crime

Answer 37

1.relative deprivation
2.subculture
3. marginalisation

Question 38

what do left realists say about relative deprivation

Answer 38

Roots of crime are in relative deprivation
And people are suffering an increased sense of deprivation due to the media exaggeration

Question 39

what do left realists say about subcultures and crime

Answer 39

Way of solving the problem - some turn to crime to solve the problem
Share society’s materialistic goals but because legitimate opportunities are blocked they resort to crime

Question 40

what do left realists say about marginalisation

Answer 40

Marginalised groups are ones that lack organisation to represent their interests and lack clearly defined goals

Question 41

what are the solutions to crime according to left realists

Answer 41

Community policing
Community service
Community centres
CCTV
Ethnicity minority police officers
Equal opportunities in schools
Education in prison

Question 42

what are the strenghts of right realists theory

Answer 42

Several studies support rational choice theory - Rettig gave students a scenario of an opportunity to commit a crime - he found that the degree of punishment determined whether they chose to commit the crime
Feldman - found that people made rational decisions - if rewards high + crime low then crime worth committing
Bennett and Wright - interviewed convicted burglars - burglars considered the potential reward - risk was most important factor influencing decision
Right realism - explain some opportunistic petty crimes such as theft

Question 43

what are the weakness of eft realsist theory

Answer 43

Rettig + Feldman study experiments - not apply to real offenders
Bennet + Wright - studied unsuccessful burglars - do not know if successful burglars think this way
Not all crimes are result of rational decisions - violent crimes impulsive, offenders under the influence of drugs + alcohol may also be unlikely to calculate risks and rewards

Question 44

what are the strengths of left realists theory

Answer 44

Left realism draws attention to the importance of poverty, inequality and relative deprivation as the underlying structural causes of crime
It draws attention to the reality of street crime and its effects, especially on victims from deprived groups

Question 45

what are the weaknesses of left realist theory

Answer 45

Henry and Milovanovic argue that left realism accepts the authorities definition of crime as just being the street crimes of the poor. It fails to explain white collar and corporate crime and ignores the harm done to the poor by the crimes of the powerful
Over predicts amount of working class crime
Focus on high-crime inner-city areas - unrepreseentative view + exaggerates crime

Question 46

what are the general criticisms of sociological theories

Answer 46

The underlying cause - disagreements between theories
Over prediction - dont expxlain why not every indiviidual who is depreived comitts crime

Question 47

what do surveilliance theories state

Answer 47

Monitoring people to control crime is becoming increasingly important

Foucault argues that in today’s society, people engage in self-surveillance. We are also under electronic surveillance. Surveillance has become an increasingly important from of crime control.
Monitoring people to control crime - surveillance theories look at the methods by which surveillance is carried out including technology e.g CCTV, tagging and databases that produce profiles of individuals and groups

Question 48

what does foucault say about panopticon

Answer 48

In modern society, we are increasingly controlled through self-surveillance - through disciplinary power

Question 49

what did Matheriesen argue in relation to Synopticon

Answer 49

Matheriesen argued that as well as surveillance from above - Panopticon - we now have it from the bottom - Synopticon - everybody watches everybody - dashboard cameras

Question 50

what did feeley and simon argue in relation to actuarial justice

Answer 50

Feeley and Simon : Actuarial justice - new form of surveilance - aim of actuarial justice is to predict and prevent furutre offending by using statistical information to compile profiles of likely offendors

Question 51

what are the strengths of surveillance theories?

Answer 51

Foucault’s work has stimulated research into surveillance and disciplinary power - especially into idea of an ‘electronic Panopticon’ that uses modern technologies to monitor us
Researchers have identified other forms of surveillance, including actuarial justice and profiling