AC 2.1- Biological theories of criminality

Question 1

general criticism of biological theories of criminality

Answer 1

Ignoring environmental factors - person may be born with increased aggression for example, but need an environmental trigger for them to commit a crime

A sample bias - not representative - researchers often use sample of convicted criminals - does NOT represent criminals who got away, not sound basis for generalising about all criminals

A gender bias - focuses on males so doesn’t explain female criminality

Crime is a social construct - what a crime is varies over culture and time - no sense in looking for universal explanations (as biological theories do)

Question 2

Physiological theory - Lombroso - what does the theory state

Answer 2

criminals can be identified by their features and specific crimes are related to specific features
Came up with this idea by studying the bodies of criminals
Distinctive features include large jaws, high cheekbones, handle-shaped ears, acute eyesight
Flattened noses for thieves

Question 3

What is Lombrosos theory on the female offender

Answer 3

The Female Offender (1897)

Males with five or more physical anomalies are marked as ‘born criminals’

Female criminals are also born criminals but they may be identified with as few as three anomalies

Lombroso concluded that female criminals were rare and suggested that they had not ‘degenerated’ in the same way as men because they had evolved kess due to the inactive nature of their lives

Question 4

What did Charles Goring state in relation to Lombroso’s theory

Answer 4

Results from the study ultimately concluded that there were in fact no distinct physical abnormalities differentiating criminals from non-criminals

Question 5

What are the strengths of Lombrosos theory

Answer 5

First study of crime scientifically - using objective measurements, crime previously seen as moral/religious issue
Research showed importance of looking at criminals history

helps us to focus on how we can help prevent further crime rather than pushing offenders to commit more -Arguing offenders were not freely choosing to commit crime

Question 6

What are the weaknesses of Lombrosos theory

Answer 6

Research since Lombroso has failed to show a link between facial features and criminality
Lombroso failed to compare his findings on prisoners with a control group of non criminals - had he done so he may have found the same characteristics among the general population which would make his explanation invalid
By describing criminals as like ‘primitive savages’ - Lombroso equates non western societies with criminals this is a form of racism

Question 7

Physiological - Sheldons theory - what does it state

Answer 7

Sheldon argued that somatotype (body type) is related to criminality: mesomorphs are more likely to commit crimes

Question 8

Sheldon’s theory - What are the 3 somatotypes + describe them

Answer 8

Ectomorph - Thin, fragile, lacking fat + muscle, narrow hips, personality is self-conscious, thoughtful, emotionally restrained

Endomorph - Rounded, soft, fat, wide hips + lack muscle, sociable, relaxed comfortable and outgoing

Mesomorph - Muscular + hard-bodied, little fat + strong limbs, narrow waist, adventurous, inward-looking

Question 9

Strengths of Sheldons theory

Answer 9

Glueck + Glueck found that 60% of the offenders in their study were mesomorphs
Most serious delinquents had most extreme mesomorphic body shape

Question 10

Weaknesses of Sheldons theory

Answer 10

Glueck + Glueck found that criminality was best explained not by biology alone, but by a combination of biological, psychological + environmental factors
Criminals may develop a mesomorphic build as a result of needing to be physically tough to succeed - meaning CRIMINALITY CAUSES SOMATOTYPE
SOCIAL CLASS may have an effect on somatotype - working class people are most convicted offenders as they have an athletic build
LABELLING may play a part

Question 11

Genetic theory - twin studies - what do they argue + give detail

Answer 11

genetic theories argue that crime has genetic causes - identical (MZ) twins are genetically identical, so if one is criminal we should find that the other is too

Family members share many of the same genes
If one member has ‘criminal genes’, it is likely his or her blood relatives will too
Identical twins (monozygotic) share exactly the same genes
Identical twins - both developed from same fertilised egg

Question 12

Christiansen’s study (1997) - evidence for twin studies
- what was it + what did it find

Answer 12

3586 twin pairs in Denmark
52% concordance rate between MZ twins
Among dizygotic twins there was only 22% chance

Question 13

what are the Strengths of twin studies

Answer 13

Because MZ twins are genetically identical, it is logical to examine whether their offending behaviour is also identical
Ishikawa and Raine found higher concordance rate for identical than non identical twins

Question 14

what are the weakness of twin studies

Answer 14

Studies show 50% or less concordance and if genes were the only cause of criminality the identical twin studies would show 100%
Higher concordance rates between twins could be about other factors
Parental influence/influence of closeness of identical twins
Not all twins are the same

Question 15

genetic theory - adoption studies - what do they compare/say

Answer 15

Compares adopted children both to their biological parents and to their adopted parents. If both adopted children and biological parents have similar criminal behaviour this would suppport a genetic explanation

Question 16

what did mednick et al find

Answer 16

Sons more likely to have a criminal record if parents had a criminal record - 20% concordance rate
A smaller proportion (14.7%) had a criminal record if their adoptive parent had one

Question 17

what are the strengths of adoption studies

Answer 17

reallife application
Overcomes issues with twin studies - can separate influence of genes and eviroment
Parents are primary influence onto children - biological + adopted - in theory identifies between nurture and nature
Some correlation with biological parents having criminal records

Question 18

what are the weaknesses of adoption studies

Answer 18

Adopted children are often placed in an environment similar to the one they would have been brought up in
Many children not adopted immediately and early time with biological parents could have an effect

Question 19

genetic theory - Jacob XYY theory - what did it argue

Answer 19

Some males may have an extra Y chromosome which may cause violent behaviour
Some crimes may be related to chromosomal abnormalities
Sex is determined by the pattern of a person’s sexy chromosome - XX - woman XY man (not part of the argument)

Question 20

Jacobs XYY theory - what was his study

Answer 20

Studied imprisoned criminals in psychiatric hospitals
XYY men tend to be tall and well built + of lower intelligence - more aggressive
XYY men are over-represented in the prison population
15/1000 sufferers in prison vs 1/1000 in the general population

Question 21

Strengths of Jacobs XYY theory

Answer 21

Found correlation between between XYY syndrome and offender imprisoned for violent behaviour
Price + Whatmore found correlations between syndrome + property crime

Question 22

What are the weaknesses of Jacobs XYY theory

Answer 22

The importance of the syndrome as a cause of crime is over exaggerated - XYY males are tall and well built and therefore labelled by courts as a ‘violent offender’ this means that they are more likely to get a prison sentence for a violent crime - and therefore be overrepresented in samples drawn from prisons
Syndrome cannot explain much crime as only 1/1000 people have it
XYY males - overrepresented in prison due to low intelligence so likely to get caught

Question 23

Brain injuries and disorders theory - what is it

Answer 23

Injuries disorders + diseases of the brain may cause it to malfunction in ways that change personality, morals, self control, leading to criminals behaviour

Question 24

What are the 4 main areas of the brain?

Answer 24

Prefrontal cortex - emotional processing, the conflict between rational + emotional choices
Frontal lobe - Controls impulsivity
Parietal lobe - Processing sensory information
Occipital lobe - Visual processing

Question 25

What does damage to the prefrontal cortex mean?

Answer 25

an altered brain pattern

cannot control emotional processing - rational/emotional

Question 26

Strengths of the brain injuries and disorders theory

Answer 26

In extreme cases - brain injury + disease has led to major changes in an individual’s personality + behaviour - Phineas Gauge
correlation between abnormal brain wave activity and psychopathic criminality
Prisoners are more likely than non prisoners to have a brain injury

Question 27

Weaknesses of brain injuries and disorders theory

Answer 27

does not account for many criminals -Sufferer of brain injury original personality is more important in whether they engage in crime as brian injury etc are rare
It is not clear that abnormal behaviour cause psychopathic criminality - some psychopaths have normal brainwave activity and some normal people have abnormal brainwave activity (EEG readings)
Prisoners’ likelihood of brain injury could be a result of their criminality rather than a cause

Question 28

What did Raine et al 1997 argue

Answer 28

prefrontal deficits may make someone more impulsive and emotional - found in violent offenders

Question 29

Biochemical theory - what does it argue

Answer 29

Biochemical factors may trigger criminal behaviour by affecting brain chemistry and mental processes

Question 30

Biochemical theory - sex hormones - name facts

Answer 30

Overproduction or underproduction of hormones may cause emotional disturbances that lead to criminal behaviour
Males of most species are more aggressive
The male sex hormone - testosterone - is linked to murder + rape

Question 31

Biochemical theory - sex hormones - what do Ellis + Coontz say

Answer 31

testosterone levels peak from puberty to early 20’s+ 30’s - this age correlates with the highest crime rates in males

Question 32

Biochemical theory - sex hormones - what are the three factors accepted as partial defences for women charged with crimes on the grounds that the hormones involved affected their judgement, mood or self-control

Answer 32

Premenstrual tension, postnatal depression and lactation

Question 33

Biochemical theory - Blood sugar levels - what does Schoenthaler argue

Answer 33

claims that reducing the daily sucrose intake of young offenders could reduce the level of their antisocial behaviour

Question 34

Biochemical - blood sugar levels - what do low blood sugar levels trigger

Answer 34

Low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia) can trigger aggressive reactions

Question 35

Biochemical - Substance abuse - what did Flanzer estimate

Answer 35

estimated 80% of family violence cases involved alcohol

Question 36

Biochemical - other substances - facts

Answer 36

Vitamin B deficiency has been linked to erratic and aggressive behavior

Question 37

Strengths of the biochemical theory

Answer 37

Sexual hormones, blood sugar levels and substance abuse can affect mood, judgement and aggression
Testosterone levels and male offending both peak around the same age
Alcohol produces disinhibition which reduces self control and leads to criminal behaviour
Crack cocaine - related to violent crime
Biochemical factors are recognised by courts - law of infanticide states that if a mother kills her baby as a result of post-natal depression or breatfeeding - she has a partial defence to murder
Premenstrual tension has been accepted as a defence in shoplifting cases

Question 38

weaknesses of the biochemical theory

Answer 38

Biochemical processes may predispose some individuals to offend, but it may bethecause an environmental trigger to offend.
Scarmella and Brown found testosterone levels do not greatly affect aggression levels in most men.
Schalling found high testosterone levels in young males led to verbal aggression, but not physical violence.
Infanticide may be due to isolation and the responsibility for caring for a newborn child rather than hormones.