AC 2.3 Flashcards
what does reliability mean?
if the data method can be easily repeated
what does validity mean?
whether the research findings give a true picture of what is being studied and it should reflect the reality and give a true picture of crime
what does representativeness mean?
whether the sample represents the cross-section of society the researcher is interested in, in order to develop their theories
what 2 main sources of statistics do criminologists use on crime?
Home Office statistics
The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW)
what are the problems with the Home Office statistics (4)?
the counting rule as of 1998 which says statistics should reflect the number of victims rather than the number of offences
changes in the law, relating to past actions that were illegal but aren’t now, this can skew statistics because do old crimes get written out and new ones added in?
which offences to include, and if they don’t meet the threshold they are not included
other agencies, as some crime is not recorded by other agencies, they won’t be published in the Home Office statistics
what are the limitations of the Home Office statistics?
low in validity due to the dark figure of crime
only numerical data, so no details of offences
no consistent recording practice across all police forces
it is not known what offences have been committed
what are the limitations of (CSEW)?
it fails to capture victimless, white-collar and personal crimes
it relies on victims being accurate and some may lie or exaggerate
the sample may not be representative because it is not sent to all members of the population
what do Marxists se crime as?
something being inevitable in a capitalist society and is used by the ruling class as a means of social control
what is another name for the ruling class?
bourgeoisie
according to marxists what institutions encourage you to conform?
police, prisons, justice system, schools, family and religion
what do marxists argue about white collar crime?
they tend to be committed by the more powerful and are ignored while crimes committed by the less powerful (street crimes) are focused on and seen as more serious
what is another name for the working class?
proteriat
what is marxism?
the theory of Karl Marx which states that capitalism is unequal and undemocratic being based on the exploitation of the working class by the bourgeoisie
what is capitalism?
the social system in which the means for producing and distributing goods are controlled by a small minority of people for profit, the majority of people must sell their ability to work in return for a wage or a salary
what do marxists hold the view about in regards to government statistics?
that they are fabricated to suit the purposes of the government and get public support for any action taken that might be construed as trespassing on freedoms; they believe this number is 42% of statistics
why do marxists say there can be no overall theory of crime?
because it needs to be considered in terms of the social context in which it takes place
who had marxist theories?
Karl Marx
Gordon
Reiman
what did Gordon say and when?
in 1991 he said there are inequalities in the application and enforcement of laws
what did Gordon say was selective enforcement (Marxism) giving an example?
tax evasion is rarely prosecuted whereas benefit fraud almost always results in a prosecution
what was Reiman’s 2001 book called and what did it show?
‘The rich get richer and the poor get prison’ which showed that the more likely a crime is to be committed by the higher class, the less likely it is to be treated as a criminal offence
according to Howard Becker who are agents of social control?
the police and judges
what is a folk devil according to Cohen in 1973?
a person of bad influence on society
who came up with functionalist theories?
Durkheim
Merton
what did Durkheim suggest that crime was?
inevitable as not every member of society can be equally committed to the collective sentiments or values and beliefs, socialisation and social control to help achieve solidarity
when does crime become dysfunctional according to Durkheim?
when the rate of crime is too high or too low
according to Durkheim what will happen if collective sentiments are too strong?
there will be little change in the law; if there was no opposition to homosexuality it would still be illegal now
according to Durkheim what will happen if collective sentiments are too weak?
there will be too much crime resulting in chaos
what do crime boundaries do according to Durkheim?
react and unite and reinforce the commitment of society to the value consensus
give an example of boundary maintenance as a functionalist theory.
the 2008 abduction of Shannon Matthews when members of the Moorside Estate united in expressing their views of the crime, organising searches and displays of boundary maintenance
what did Merton argue about his strain theory?
that society encourages us to subscribe to the goals of material success but doesn’t provide legitimate means for us all to achieve such success
what did Merton say about working class people in his strain theory?
they are more likely to be denied material benefits as their opportunities are blocked and as a result they experience feelings of strain and anomie when they strive for material success but don’t have opportunities through legitimate means
what does anomie mean?
loss of shared norms
what are the options for people who cannot achieve their goals according to Merton’s strain theory?
conformity
innovation
ritualism
retreatism
rebellion
according to Merton what does conformity mean?
just keep going and achieve by legitimate means
according to Merton what does innovation mean?
turn to crime, theft and fraud e.g.
according to Merton what does ritualism mean?
give up trying to achieve goal
according to Merton what does retreatism mean?
reject the means and dream of society
according to Merton what does rebellion mean?
reject the dream and replace it with revolutionary ideas e.g. hippies and counter-culture
who came up with interactionist theories?
Becker and Lemert
what is interactionism?
it refers to how people in society interact with one another
how did Howard Becker use his labelling theory?
to explain criminality and argued official statistics on crime are socially constructed
what did Becker say about crime and agents of control?
crime is subjective and agents of control label certain acts and punish accordingly
what types of deviancy did Lemert refer to?
primary = an act not socially labelled as deviant
secondary = an act labelled as deviant
what did Lemert say about once an act has been labelled deviant?
it can lead to a master status and self-fulfilling prophecy: the person becomes the label either deviant or criminal
how can the media create deviancy amplification according to Lemert?
they demonise those labelled as deviant creating moral panic in society and making those labelled deviant into folk devils, marginalising them further (deviancy amplification)
what are the two types of realism?
right and left
what does right realism consider about crime?
it considers it from the perspective of political conservatism with the standpoint of getting tough on crime
who are the right realists theorists?
Charles Murray and Clarke
what did Charles Murray state?
that everyone is tempted to commit crime but it is the amount of social bonds that prevent it
what does Murray say about the development of the underclass?
single parents, where young boys grow up without appropriate role models and crime is a way of proving they are men
what do right realists question the view of?
that economic factors are the reason behind rising crime rates
what do right realists believe is the reason people commit crime?
individuals are more likely to commit crime when the social constraints on their behaviour are weakened; so crime is linked to inadequate social contral
what was a result of Clarke’s 1997 theories of right realism?
crime can be made to seem less attractive in a variety of ways and the police have used a variety of strategies of target hardening such as CCTV, Neighbourhood watch schemes and strict law and order policies
who came up with left realist theories?
Young
what is left realism?
the suggestion that crime lies in the inequalities created by a capitalist society
what do left realists believe can reduce crimes?
practical measures and a long term change towards a more equal caring society are needed
according to left realists what does capitalism encourage?
levels of consumption, but is unable to deliver to all, so some people are motivated by consumerism and turn to crime to make up the shortfall but what is needed is a gradual social change along with practical solutions to the problem of crime
what are the left realist causes of crime?
relative deprivation
subcultures
marginalisation
what is relative deprivation?
how deprived someone feels in relation to others
what did left realist Young highlight about relative deprivation in 1999?
there is a lethal combination of deprivation and individualism with self-interest causing the disintegration of families/communities undermining the values of mutual support and selflessness
according to left realism how are subcultures a cause of crime?
blocked opportunities leading to joining of subcultures as a collective solution to relative deprivation
according to left realism how is marginalisation a cause of crime?
unemployed youth have no clear goals or representation which causes resentment and frustration
