AAMC FL2 psych/soc

Question 1

When comparing the color perception of humans and baboons, similarity in which anatomical structure of the eye is most important?

A.Optic disc
B.Sclera
C.Fovea
D.Lens

Answer 1

the fovea becuase its the region of retina with HIGH CONES, greatest level of visual acuity, detects COLOR

Question 2

optic disc, sclera, fovea, lens

Answer 2

optic dics - retinal axons project to the optic nerve (blind spot) without photoreceptors for light detection, Not involved in color perception

sclera - dense connective tissue of outer eye

fovea - region of retina, cones which detect color

lens - focusing light onto the retina, sharpness of image

Question 3

The results indicated that although baboons can discriminate color successfully, they do not perceive it categorically.

Which graph matches

Answer 3

D shows that the cant see the category as there is no different line segments (all same) but they still recognize the color (otherwise green responses would not change as wavelength changes)

Question 4

if the researchers monitored the cortical activity of the baboons as they viewed the color patches, they would most likely find increased activity in the:

A.occipital cortex.
B.temporal cortex.
C.somatosensory cortex.
D.motor cortex.

Answer 4

The occipital cortex is a region of the brain specifically involved in the perception of visual stimuli. Consistently, as the baboons view color patches, one would expect to observe increased activity within the occipital cortex.

Question 5

Which schedule of reinforcement is used in the color-matching task?

A.Fixed ratio
B.Variable ratio
C.Fixed interval
D.Variable interval

The passage states, “[The baboons’] task was to tap on the option that matched the target color. When a correct response was produced, the subject received a banana chip.”

Answer 5

This is fixed ratio bc the reinforcement is after a consistent num of target behaviors (when color matches). They recieved a reinforecer (chip) after each target (providing correct response)

Question 6

fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval

Answer 6

fixed ratio - reinforcer (prize) after consistent number of target behaviors (like correct resp)

variable ratio - reinforcement after varying NUM of target responses (like correct resp) varying around PREDETERMINED AVG

fixed interval - reinforcer (prize) when the target resposnse (like correct resp) is preformed for the first time after a consistent INTERVAL OF TIME has elapsed

variable interval -reinforcer (prize) when the target resp (like correct resp) is preformed for the first time after a VARYING TIME interval

Question 7

social status and roles

Answer 7

someones position and standing in a society

Question 8

social and cultural capital

Answer 8

social and cultural factors that help an individual or a community to distinquish themselves from the rest of society - -diff than traditions and behavioral standards

Question 9

cultural values and norms

Answer 9

local traditions and behavioral standards

like how differences in ways immigrants adopt local traditions and behavioral standards can result in distinct geographic patterns of assimilation

Question 10

material and symbolic culuture

Answer 10

refer to tangible and intangible aspects of a culture

Question 11

baby boom generation

Answer 11

individuals born between approximately 1946 and 1964.

Birth rates were relatively high for almost two decades after World War II because of the fast economic growth experienced in the society. Therefore, the baby boom generation is the main sociohistorical factor that explains the projection in the passage about the increasing share of the population over 65 years of age.

Question 12

great depression and population

Answer 12

The Great Depression experienced in the 1930s led to a significant decline in living standards and is not associated with the population boom experienced in the post-WWII era.

Question 13

sexual revolution in 60s and 70s

Answer 13

The sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s was a cultural movement that challenged the traditional gender roles and understanding of sexuality. This movement is connected to feminist and LGBTQ movements and is not associated with an increase in the population of the baby boom generation.

Question 14

conflict theory

Answer 14

Conflict theory broadly calls attention to competition among social groups at a macro level, including generational conflict.

draw attention to social inequalities, generational conflict

a macro theory that attempts to understand society by examining the inevitable conflicts between groups in society. Conflict theory has its origins in the writings of Karl Marx, a 19th century social philosopher who examined the influence of capitalism on 19th century society.

According to Marx, the conflict in such a society would be a physical one: Eventually, the worker class would rise up and overthrow the capitalist class and form a new, classless society.

Question 15

To explain the demographic dynamics in the passage, a conflict theorist is most likely to consider the relationship among which factors?

A.Age, medicalization, and the illness experience
B.Generational status, social solidarity, and the welfare state
C.Age, social isolation, and networks of social support
D.Generational status, political power, and resource allocation

Answer 15

conflict theorist focuses on macro levels (so not individual things like age, medicalization, illness expierence)

D.Generational status, political power, and resource allocation

Question 16

structural-functionalism (functionalism)

Answer 16

In some ways, structural-functionalism is the inverse of conflict theory. The founder of structural-functionalism, Émile Durkheim, was interested in how large societies survive over long time periods, and was therefore concerned with social cohesion and stability. Durkheim compared society to an organism and proposed that each group in society has a role to play in the overall health and operation of society. These roles might be very different, in the same way that different organs or even different cells have very different functions within an organism, but each is important. Durkheim called each social group’s role its function: the contribution made by that group to the system. According to structural-functionalist theory, the different groups of society work together in an unconscious, almost automatic way toward maintenance of equilibrium.

In structural-functionalism, functions can either be manifest or latent. A manifest function is an intended consequence of the actions of a group within a society. When an organization or institution has unintended but beneficial consequences, these are called latent functions.

Question 17

symbol

Answer 17

Any object, image, sound, or action that carries meaning to humans is a symbol. Importantly, according to this definition, while many physical objects are symbols, a symbol need not be a physical object. For example, spoken words are symbols, and so are meaningful grunts. Body language and hand gestures are symbols. Anything that carries meaning beyond its own existence is a symbol.

Question 18

symbolic interactionalism

Answer 18

Symbolic interactionism is an approach to sociology pioneered by influential sociologist George Herbert Mead that attempts to understand human action and interaction by studying the symbols we use to communicate. This theoretical approach makes three main assumptions about human behavior:

• Humans act toward symbols based on the meanings that these symbols carry.
  *The meanings symbols carry come from social interaction.
  *Humans interpret the meaning of symbols, and this interpretation influences action.

Therefore, according to symbolic interactionism, humans are different from lower animals in that lower animals simply respond to stimuli, while humans have the capability to interpret the stimulus first, then react.

is useful for explaining micro- and meso-level sociological phenomena.

Question 19

who founded symblolic interactionalism

Answer 19

George Herbert Mead

Question 20

social construct and social constructionalism

Answer 20

A social construct is any idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society. Social constructionism is the attempt to understand a society through the study of the society’s social constructs.

Question 21

social construct vs social constructionalism

Answer 21

A social construct is any idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society. Social constructionism is the attempt to understand a society through the study of the society’s social constructs.

Question 22

rational choice theory

Answer 22

Rational choice theory is one more micro- to meso-level approach to sociology. This theory focuses on individual decision making. According to rational choice theorists, humans will make rational choices to further their own self-interests. This theory claims that people weigh the costs and benefits when making choices, ranking their options based on maximizing perceived benefit

Question 23

ccording to rational choice theorists, humans will make rational choices to further their own…..

Answer 23

Rational choice theory is one more micro- to meso-level approach to sociology. This theory focuses on individual decision making. According to rational choice theorists, humans will make rational choices to further their own self-interests. This theory claims that people weigh the costs and benefits when making choices, ranking their options based on maximizing perceived benefit

Question 24

rational choice perspective on relationships

Answer 24

oreover, according to rational choice theorists, people evaluate whether there is reciprocity and balance in social relationships: People stay in relationships because they get something from the exchange, and they leave relationships when there are more social costs than benefits. Due to this view of relationships as exchanges of social value, rational choice theory is sometimes called social exchange theory, or just exchange theory for short.

Question 25

other name for rational choice theory

Answer 25

relationships as exchanges of social value, rational choice theory is sometimes called social exchange theory, or just exchange theory for short.

Question 26

conflict theory interest groups

Answer 26

However, according to conflict theorists, if people in lower-status positions recognize this power differential and see that others share a common dissatisfaction, then these individuals can organize to form interest groups, through which they can use tools such as protesting or voting to enact change and equalize power. In short, according to conflict theory, for the more powerful in society, maintenance of the status quo is usually desirable, and for the less powerful, change comes through disruption and revolution.

Question 27

Which finding best supports the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

A.All languages have a word for “up” and a word for “down.”
B.Humans are better at learning words for primary colors than for secondary colors.
C.Some languages do not have words for “right” and “left.”
D.Humans are better at distinguishing colors for which their language has a name.

Answer 27

D.Humans are better at distinguishing colors for which their language has a name.

Question 28

source memory error

Answer 28

source monitoring error is when memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source.

Question 29

A study presents participants with fictitious names. The next day, participants are given a list of celebrity names, the old fictitious names from the previous day, and new fictitious names. They are asked to identify the famous names on the list. The most common errors the participants make are source monitoring errors. Which graph demonstrates the most likely outcome?

Answer 29

A is correct

A shows that there is an category (source) difference between old ficticious / new fictious / and celebrity names

B shows this for ONLY for celebrity vs OLD/NEW not for all categories

Question 30

A patient who is experiencing severe marital problems reports having no memory of any life events surrounding the marriage and the spouse. The patient’s memory for other life events is intact. This patient is most likely to be diagnosed with:

A.a conversion disorder.
B.schizophrenia.
C.retrograde amnesia.
D.a dissociative disorder.

Answer 30

D. Dissociative amnesia is a dissociative disorder where individuals cannot recall important autobiographical information, usually related to a trauma or stressor. This is most consistent to the symptoms described.

Question 31

conversion disorder

Answer 31

Conversion disorder is characterized by impairments to voluntary motor or sensory function which are not due to a recognized neurological or medical condition

Question 32

schizophrenia
pos and neg symptoms

Answer 32

Schizophrenia is characterized by symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized or diminished speech or behavior. The symptoms described do not support a schizophrenia diagnosis.

positive symptoms – any change in behaviour or thoughts, such as hallucinations or delusions.

negative symptoms – where people appear to withdraw from the world around then, take no interest in everyday social interactions, and often appear emotionless and flat.

Men are more likely to experience more negative symptoms than women at illness onset. There is conflicting evidence related to sex differences in the expression of positive symptoms. Some studies have found that women are more likely to experience positive symptoms.

Question 33

retrograde amnesia

Answer 33

etrograde amnesia is a loss of memory for previously stored information, due to injury or neurological disease.

NOT due to psychological stress

Question 34

Some studies have found that increases in dopamine activity are associated with increased reward-seeking motivation. This finding suggests an association between dopamine levels and which type of learning?

A.Classical conditioning
B.Operant conditioning
C.Latent learning
D.Observational learning

Answer 34

Operant conditioning is a form of learning which occurs when changes in behavior occur due to previously experienced outcomes for that behavior. Behaviors which are rewarded increase in frequency. Thus, if increases in dopamine activity increase reward-seeking motivation, this would have an impact on operant learning.

Question 35

operant learning is associated with what NT and what behavior

Answer 35

dopamine
reward seeking

Question 36

classical vs operant conditioning

Answer 36

Classical conditioning is a form of learning which occurs when a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. This form of learning is not directly relevant to reward-seeking motivation.

Operant conditioning is a form of learning which occurs when changes in behavior occur due to previously experienced outcomes for that behavior. Behaviors which are rewarded increase in frequency. Thus, if increases in dopamine activity increase reward-seeking motivation, this would have an impact on operant learning.

Question 37

latent learning

Answer 37

Latent learning is learning which takes place in the absence of reinforcement or punishment. This form of learning is not directly relevant to reward-seeking motivation.

Question 38

observational learning

Answer 38

Observational learning is a form of learning where an individual either acquires or changes a behavior after viewing at least one performance of that behavior by another. This form of learning is not directly relevant to reward-seeking motivation.

Question 39

structural functionalism manifest vs latent

Answer 39

In structural-functionalism, functions can either be manifest or latent. A manifest function is an intended consequence of the actions of a group within a society. When an organization or institution has unintended but beneficial consequences, these are called latent functions. For example, annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and setting goals for the next year. Such meetings also create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group, both of which are latent functions. On the other hand, while both manifest and latent functions provide a benefit to society, dysfunctions are negative consequences of the existence of an institution, organization, or interaction.

Question 40

negative reinforcement: escape learning
avoidance learning

Answer 40

which differ in whether the unpleasant stimulus occurs or not.

Escape learning describes a situation where the animal experiences the unpleasant stimulus and, in response, displays the desired behavior in order to trigger the removal of the stimulus. So, in this type of learning, the desired behavior is used to escape the stimulus.

In contrast, avoidance learning occurs when the animal displays the desired behavior in anticipation of the unpleasant stimulus, thereby avoiding the unpleasant stimulus.

Question 41

how could classicial and operant conditioning be combined

Answer 41

Classical and operant conditioning can be used hand-in-hand. For example, some dog trainers take advantage of reinforcers when training dogs to perform tricks. Sometimes, the trainers will feed the dog a bit of meat after it performs a trick.

The meat can be said to be a primary reinforcer because the meat is a treat that the dog responds to naturally. Dog trainers also use tiny handheld devices that emit a clicking sound. This clicker would not normally be a reinforcer on its own, but the trainers use classical conditioning to pair the clicker with meat to elicit the same response.

The clicker is thus a conditioned reinforcer, which is sometimes called a secondary reinforcer. Eventually, the dog may even associate the presence of the trainer with the possibility of reward, making the presence of the trainer a discriminative stimulus.

A discriminative stimulus indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm.

Question 42

avoidance and escape learning in buckling seatbelt

Answer 42

Avoidance learning often develops from multiple experiences of escape learning. An example of this progression from escape learning to avoidance learning is the seat belt warning in a car. If a driver begins driving without buckling the seat belt, then the car will produce an annoying beeping noise, which only ends when the seat belt is buckled. In this example, the desired behavior is to buckle the seat belt.

This behavior is reinforced by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (the audible beeping), so this type of learning is negative reinforcement. More specifically, this example illustrates escape learning, since the driver first experiences the unpleasant stimulus, then exhibits the desired behavior in order to escape the unpleasant stimulus. However, after forgetting to buckle the seat belt several times, the driver will eventually learn to preemptively buckle up before driving the car in order to avoid the beeping sound. At that point, the escape learning has progressed to avoidance learning.

Question 43

neg and pos reinforcement in operant conditioning

Answer 43

inally, this example illustrates an important misconception about the term negative reinforcement: Buckling one’s seat belt is generally considered a “positive” behavior, in that it protects one’s health. Nevertheless, the terms “positive” and “negative” in operant conditioning only refer to the addition or removal of a stimulus.