A theoretical framework (chpt.3)

Question 1

Framework

Answer 1

five elements

• group members
• group tasks
• group interaction
• group output
• group context

Question 2

Top down effects

Answer 2

occur when characteristics at the group level influence group member behavior, thoughts, and feelings

Question 3

Bottom up effects

Answer 3

occur when characteristics at the individual level determine at the group level

Question 4

Potential performance

Answer 4

Potential Performance= f (group member resources,task demands) potential performance (what a group could potentially achieve given group member resources and task demands and actual performance what the group actually does achieve.

Question 5

Steiner’s classification of group tasks

Answer 5

Divisible tasks can be divided into subtasks whereas this is not possible for unitary tasks lifting a piano is a unitary task there are no subtasks he distinguished between optimizing and maximizing tasks

4 task types

• additive
• disjunctive
• conjunctive
• discretionary

Question 6

Steiner’s Typology of tasks Additive Task

Answer 6

Potential performance of the group is given by the sum or average of individuals inputs ex. filling envelopes, pulling a rope, brainstorming, making judgements and estimates

Question 7

Steiner’s Typology of tasks Disjunctive Task

Answer 7

Potential performance of the group is given by performance of the worst member ex. decision making, problem solving

Question 8

Steiner’s Typology of tasks Conjunctive Task

Answer 8

Potential performance of the group is given by performance of the worst member ex. mountain climbing, assembly line

Question 9

Steiner’s Typology of tasks Compensatory Task

Answer 9

Potential performance is given by any combination of individual performances up to the discretion of the group ex. making music, designing a car

Question 10

Group Process

Answer 10

determine how individual inputs of group members are combined to lead to a group output

Question 11

Action Performance

Answer 11

is a function of potential performance and group processes.

Actual performance= potential performance - process loss

Question 12

Motivation loss

Answer 12

occurs when members are not optimally motivated

Question 13

Coordination loss

Answer 13

occurs when group members do not combine their potential contributions in an optimal way

Question 14

A two way classification of outcomes level of analysis

Performance

Answer 14

Individual- Individual level performance amount of influence, personal production, speed of performance

Group- Group level performance, quality of decision, correctness of solution, group productivity, time required

Question 15

A two way classification of outcomes level of analysis

Affective

Answer 15

Individual- Individual level affective responses satisfaction, respect and a status, mood, and motivation

Group- Group level affective responses, group cohesion, group affective tone

Question 16

A two way classification of outcomes level of analysis

Learning

Answer 16

Individual-Individual learning, task proficiency, Interpersonal skills, knowledge

Group-Group learning transactive memory

Question 17

Structure

Answer 17

Groups have stable patterns of relationships among members

• norms
• roles
• hierarchies
• social networks
• communication networks

Question 18

Norms

Answer 18

groups are based on coordinated actions

• reciprocity give and take
• equity you get as much as you put in
• equality

Question 19

Descriptive norms

Answer 19

Shared expectations that define what most people do, or do not do, in a particular situation.
Defines what is “normally” done.
Violating such norms are considered “unusual.”

Question 20

Prescriptive Norms

Answer 20

Shared expectations that define what people should, or should not, do in a particular situation.
Violating such norms is considered “bad.”
“Injunctive norms”

Question 21

Sherif’s study

Answer 21

Autokinetic effect in a dark room we focus on lit objects research on dot of light “How far did the dot move?”

Formation of group norms: Participants in a dark room were asked to judge how far a dot of light moved.
Autokinetic effect (ambiguous stimulus)
Phase 1: Made judgments alone.
Phase 2: Made judgments in groups.

Internalizing the group norm:
Phase 3: Participants made judgments alone again  continued to follow the group norm (even without social pressure to do so).

Preservation of group norms:
In another study, confederates (the experimenter’s secret helper) deliberately made extreme judgments, which influenced the group to establish its norm closer to that extreme judgment  groups continued to follow that norm for a while even when the confederate was replaced by another participant.

Question 22

Asch’s Conformity Studies

Answer 22

Participants followed the incorrect majority 37% of the time.

Fifty percent conformed for at least half of the times in response to the incorrect majority.

On the other hand, 25% of the participants never conformed.

When alone again (in privacy), the participants who had conformed changed their answers.

Question 23

Sherif vs. Asch Studies

Answer 23

Sherif: Task involved making uncertain, subjective judgment; participants turned to each other for guidance.
Informational Influence.
Private conformity (true acceptance).
Change is maintained whether or not the group is present.

Asch: Task had clear, objective answer.
Normative Influence.
Public conformity (superficial change).
Change occurs only when the group is present.

Question 24

Minority Influence

Answer 24

“Minority” (i.e., part of the group that is smaller in numbers)

The minority need to dissent consistently to bring about change in the group

Question 25

Indirect Influence

Answer 25

Changing thoughts on issues related to the main issue, rather than on the main issue itself.

Example: if the main issue of discussion was raising tuition, then changing thoughts on the issue of raising other fees

Question 26

Nemeth’s Theory

Answer 26

Majority influence
Triggers stress

Narrows attention and cognitive efforts to the majority’s arguments

Convergent thinking (one-sided thinking)

Minority influence
Triggers careful reconsideration of the issue (open mind)

Divergent thinking (considers multiple viewpoints)  more careful consideration of the issue; more creativity

Question 27

Organizational Culture

Answer 27

Shared beliefs, values, and traditions of an organization

Question 28

3 levels of organizational culture

Answer 28

Observable artifacts
Physical layout, dress codes, how people address each other, hiring practices

Underlying assumptions
deeply ingrained values
taken-for-granted; less likely to be questioned

Espoused values

Question 29

Person-Organizational Fit

Answer 29

An employee feels that his or her beliefs or values are consistent with the beliefs or values held by the organization.

Important for both the individual and the organization.

Question 30

Roles

Answer 30

Roles influence group structure by directing the behaviors expected of group members in specific positions within the group.
Role expectations: What we expect of group members on the basis of their role.
Like norms, roles may be formal or informal.

Question 31

Task roles

Answer 31

Task roles:
Focus is on achieving the group’s goal and task
“coordinator,” “information giver,” “energizer”

Question 32

Socioemotional roles

Answer 32

Focus is on meeting interpersonal, emotional needs of group members.
“encourager,” “harmonizer”

Question 33

Types of external roles

Answer 33

“Boundary spanner”: Acts as a bridge between different groups or units within an organization.

“Gatekeeper”: Controls the flow of info to and from a group.

“Lobbyist”: Controls how the team is perceived from the outside.

“Spokesperson”: the voice of the team.

“Negotiator”: negotiates on behalf of the team.

“Bufferer”: protects the group from bad news, pressure, or outside criticism.

“Strategist”: plans how to approach the larger organization or deal with threats to the group

Question 34

Status Hierarchies

Answer 34

Group members may not start off as hierarchical, but over time differentiation of authority takes place (status differentiation).

Question 35

Process of Status differentiation

Answer 35

Depends on the individual and the group.
Whether the individual communicates “claims” for higher status.
Whether other group members accept or not that individual’s claim.

Question 36

Status differentiation Expectiation states theory

Answer 36

Status differentiation most likely to occur when the group is working on a task important to them

Group members take note of each other’s “status characteristics” (personal qualities suggesting ability)

Potential to contribute to the group’s goals (“performance expectations”) affect status differentiation.

Question 37

Expectation states theory

Answer 37

Performance expectations are:
based on skill- or experience-related characteristics (specific status characteristics),

or superficial characteristics such as age, ethnicity, gender, or attractiveness when people associate them with needed skills (diffuse status characteristics).

Once group members form high performance expectations for an individual group member, then they allow that person to influence them.

Question 38

Power

Answer 38

A member’s ability to influence other members’ behaviors or thoughts

Question 39

Reward power

Answer 39

Power based on being able to control how rewards are going to be allocated.

Question 40

Coercive Power

Answer 40

Power based on the capacity to threaten and punish those who do not comply with requests.

Question 41

Legitimate Power

Answer 41

Powerholder is perceived as having the legitimate right to require and demand obedience.
Based on roles, norms, and status.
Legitimacy is a perceptual process

Question 42

Referent Power

Answer 42

Power based on the follower’s identification with, attraction to, or respect for, the powerholder.
Charismatic leaders.

Question 43

Legitimate Power

Answer 43

Powerholder is perceived as having the legitimate right to require and demand obedience.
Based on roles, norms, and status.
Legitimacy is a perceptual process

Question 44

Referent Power

Answer 44

Power based on the follower’s identification with, attraction to, or respect for, the powerholder.
Charismatic leaders.

Question 45

Expert Power

Answer 45

Power based on the follower’s belief that the powerholder possesses better skills and abilities.

Question 46

Informational Power

Answer 46

Power based on the ability to provide, keep, organize, increase, or falsify information.

Question 47

Persuasive power

Answer 47

Based on one’s ability to use rational arguments, facts, or persuasion

Question 48

Agentic state

Answer 48

The loss of autonomy that individuals experience when they become the agent of a person in authority.
In Milgram’s Destructive Obedience study, participants accepted the experimenter’s definition of the situation as not being harmful;
felt less personal responsibility for the well-being of the learner;
in this state, it becomes very difficult to disobey.

Question 49

Negative Effects of coercive tactics

Answer 49

Coercive tactics can generate hostility among the followers.
Psychological reactance shown by followers.
Resistance and disinterest grows; it becomes harder and harder to influence them.
Damage to the relationship between the influencer and the followers.
Members who join the resistance grows

Question 50

Power Holder

Answer 50

Becoming corrupted: 
Those with power tend to use it.
Unrealistic, positive self-evaluations.
Overestimation of their own power.
Putting more distance themselves and the followers.
Not trusting the followers.
Devalue the follower’s work and ability.
Spending less time gathering and processing info about the followers.

Question 51

Mandate Phenomenon

Answer 51

Leaders overstepping the bounds of their authority when they feel they have the overwhelming support of the group.

Question 52

Group Developmental Stage Forming Orientation stage (Tuckmen & Jensen 1977)

Answer 52

Members unfamiliar with each other
Norms & roles regulating behavior are unclear

Guarded interactions: members try to avoid social blunders and are reluctant to discuss personal views.

Members tend to go along with whatever the leader suggests; very little conflict expressed.

With time and effort, members become familiar with one another and the group.

Question 53

Group Developmental Stage Storming Conflict stage

Answer 53

Storming (conflict stage)
Struggle over power, control, group goals, roles, and relationship with one another

Conflict with leader
Openly challenging the leader
Or minimize contact with leader

Solutions for stable patterns of authority and relationships are sought.

Storming (conflict stage), continued
Positive side: Deep understanding of one another’s perspectives reached when conflict has surfaced and is constructively resolved.

If group shows low conflict at this stage: likely the result of members being uninvolved or unmotivated (rather than them getting along well).

Question 54

Group Developmental Stages Norming structure stage

Answer 54

Norming (structure stage)
Norms and roles are clearer

Mutual trust, cooperation, and support increase

Greater unity and cohesion.

Question 55

Group Developmental Stages Performing work stage

Answer 55

Highly task-focused; emphasis on performance and production.

Only a minority of groups reach this stage
Also, simply passage of time does not guarantee group will reach this stage (Gabarro, 1987).

Question 56

Group Developmental Stages Adjourning (dissolution)

Answer 56

Planned – When tasks are completed, or resources or time is exhausted.
Spontaneous – When an unrecoverable problem arises.
Withdrawal, apathy, or animosity; and reduced interdependency; stressful times.

Question 57

Equilibrium Model of Group Development (Bales, 1965)

Answer 57

As groups develop, they try to maintain a balance between accomplishing tasks and interpersonal relationship demands.
Cycling back and forth between “norming” and “performing.”
If the group has focused too much on completing a task, then they might go through a period of cohesion-building.

Question 58

Group socialization theory (Moreland & Levine, 1982)

Answer 58

Group socialization: A pattern of change in the relationship between an individual and a group.

Depends on the processes of evaluation, commitment, and role transition.

Evaluation and commitment are mutual: Individual Group

Question 59

Evaluation

Answer 59

Members do a cost-reward analysis appraising the group.

The group also evaluates a member on his/her contributions to the group vs. the cost exacted by him/her.

Question 60

Commitment

Answer 60

Members compare the group to available alternatives.
Groups also compare a member to available alternatives/candidates.
If many alternatives are available, then the group’s commitment to any single member is less than if a group does not have many alternatives to choose from; likewise for member’s commitment to his/her group.

Question 61

Role Transition

Answer 61

A person usually progresses through various roles in the group
A key to getting full membership status is to be evaluated positively by the group and to gain their commitment.
Thus, newcomers often are motivated highly to obtain information on what is expected of them.
Groups try to convey this knowledge through various, formal and informal meetings.

Question 62

Group Socialization theory

Answer 62

Individuals and groups change their evaluations and commitment to one another over time.
When members reach the transitional point at the end of a stage, they experience a role transition and move into the next stage.
Several predictable “stages” of change exist.

Question 63

Group Socialization theory investigation stage

Answer 63

Potential members compare available groups with one another to decide on which one to join (reconnaissance);

Groups try to determine if each individual can be a valuable member (recruitment).

If the group sends out an invitation to join and the individual accepts, then the individual enters the group; the individual’s role changes from a prospective member to a new member.

Question 64

Group Socialization theory socialization stage

Answer 64

As a new member, the individual accepts the group’s norms and values (assimilation)

The group adapts to accommodate the newcomer’s needs (accommodation).

Successful socialization results in the individual member’s role changing from being a new member to a full member.

Question 65

Group Socialization theory Maintenance stage

Answer 65

The group and the individual member (now a full member) negotiate the role and the quantity of the member’s expected contribution (role negotiation).

If the individual dislikes the new role or fails to meet the group’s expectations regarding it, the individual’s role changes from a full member to a marginal member.

Question 66

Group Socialization theory Resocialization stage

Answer 66

The group and the individual (now a marginal member) can resolve their differences through the processes of accommodation and assimilation.

This may fail, which results in the individual member exiting from the group (to become an ex-member).

Question 67

Group Socialization theory Remembrance stage

Answer 67

Ex-members review their contributions to the group and make sense of their exit from the group (reminisce)

The group itself reviews the former member.