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A&P > A&P Test #3 NEW > Flashcards

A&P Test #3 NEW Flashcards

1
Q

What hormones/molecules are made and released from the ANTERIOR pituitary gland?

A

-FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
-LH (Luteinizing hormone)
-ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
-TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)
-Prolactin (functions to produce milk)
-Endorphins
-GH (growth hormone)

FLAT PEG

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2
Q

If you are an Olympian Sprinter, you would hope that genetically you had inherited a disproportionate number of what type of skeletal muscle fibers?

A

Type 2B

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3
Q

When one works out, his or her blood CO2 levels go ______, blood pH goes ____ and the _____ of the brain assess the current blood pH and one would start to breathe faster

A

Up; down; Medulla oblongata

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4
Q

The primary reason why the action potential of smooth muscle cell “rolls” instead of “spikes” during the deep polarization is smooth muscle has (an) ________

A

Fewer fast Voltage Gated NA+ channels

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5
Q

The micro anatomy of a skeletal muscle cell shows that the presence of ________ allows an action potential to travel “deep” into the middle of that cell and eventually that ATP opens a _______ channel, thus facilitating the beginning of a cross bridge being formed post binding of Ca++ troponin

A

T-tubules; Voltage gated Ca++

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6
Q

Which medical condition is characterized Rheumatoid arthritis

A

long-term autoimmune disorder that affects joints
o Typically in wrist and hands

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7
Q

Names for one skeletal muscle cell?

A

Myofiber; myocyte

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8
Q

Hormones that elevate blood sugar are:

A

-Glucagen
-GH
-Epinephrine
-Cortisol
-Adrenaline

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9
Q

When one analyzes the formula: Delta G = Delta H -T(Delta S), AND considers ATP hydrolysis in terms of thermodynamics, ATP hydrolysis is a ______ Delta H reaction and a ______ Delta S reaction

A

Negative; positive

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10
Q

If one is legally, consuming C2H50H (alcohol) that has caffeine in it, we would expect his or her ADH (vasopressin or anti-diuretic hormone) levels to be ______, urine volume to be _____ and the color of the urine to be ______

A

Low; high; clear

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11
Q

Drugs that are nicotenic, ACH receptors antagonist and that upregulate the neurotransmitter GABA are more than likely ______.

A

Muscle relaxants

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger in your brain

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12
Q

If growth hormone or GH is elevated due to a pituitary gland edema, this is probably in medical condition known as ______.

A

Acromegaly

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13
Q

Which muscle or muscle types have actin and myosin?

A

Skeletal; Cardiac; Smooth

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14
Q

A graph is shown of a line increasing but still below the Threshold, what channel or gate is being opened at this time?

A

Na+ leak channel
(E.P.S.P)

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15
Q

Gout is a medical condition whereby there is a buildup of ______ that is insufficiently filtered by the ______.

A

Uric acid; kidney

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16
Q

When a neuron elicits an action potential, a _______ channel opens when the AP “hits” it. The vesicles of neurotransmitter will de-dock, bind, fuse and exocytosis their contents into the synapse. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse and binds to a _____ which should facilitate either an IPSP or an EPSP.

A

VG Ca++; ligand-gated receptor/channel

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17
Q

Where on an AP graph is the minimum created depolarization to open the voltage game potassium channels?

A

Very top of AP hill where depolarization ends and repolarization begins (K+ channel opens)

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18
Q

Where on an AP graph does hyperpolarization start to occur?

A

Once the K+ gate is fully closed and after depolarization has occurred (lowest part on the graph)

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19
Q

Where on an AP graph is the membranes permeability to sodium ions at its maximum?

A

At the highest peak on the AP graph right after the depolarization occurs

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20
Q

Where have we seen/studied a VG Ca++ channel that can open and allow Ca++ to diffuse down its concentration gradient passively?

A

-End of a neuron( close to pre-synaptic membrane)
-sarcoplasmic reticulum
-the SA Node of the cardiac “pacemaker”

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21
Q

Insulin is produced by ______ cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. Insulin binds to a Tyrosine kinase receptor and upregulates a protein called ______ which ultimately ______ blood sugar.

A

-Beta
-GLUT4
-lowers

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22
Q

Hormones that we have studied this semester that promote erythropoesis (produces red blood cells) or hematopoesis (formation of blood cellular components) is/are:

A

-EPO
-IGF1

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23
Q

What hormones/molecules are made and released from the POSTERIOR pituitary?

Flat peg endorphins?

A

-ADH (or vasopressin)
-Oxytocin

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24
Q

When lactate is shuttled, _______ are involved and the _____ will lactate back to pyruvate where the pyruvate can go through Krebs, gluconeogenesis, or the pyruvate can be put back into the bloodstream.

A

MCT proteins; liver

transmembrane proteins that play a crucial role in various metabolic pathways by facilitating the transport of L-lactate and pyruvate across the cell membrane

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25
Q

When one sees “ATPase”, she, or he should think that ATP hydrolysis will be coupled to another reaction and ultimately, ATP hydrolysis will turn a ____ reaction into a _____ reaction which means it _____ happen if ATP hydrolysis takes place.

A

Positive delta G; negative delta G; can

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26
Q

Pre-capillary sphincters or bands of ____ muscle that are under _____ control; ergo, the primary neurotransmitter that binds to receptors on the PCS is ______.

A

Smooth; adrenergonic; norepinephrine

Adrenergic means “working on adrenaline or noradrenaline”

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27
Q

If acetylcholinesterase is completely inhibited (irreversibly), the amount of acetylcholine at skeletal muscle synopsis would go _____ and skeletal muscle will stay _____.

A

Up; contracted

Acetylcholinesterase: Its primary job is to break down acetylcholine, a major neurotransmitter, into acetic acid and choline

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28
Q

The vagus nerve (CN X), secretes the neurotransmitter ______ which binds to a _____ receptor which ultimately _____ heart rate.

A

Acetylcholine; muscarinic; lowers

–>Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter, a chemical that carries messages from your brain to your body through nerve cells

Muscarinic: IPSP (inhibitor and slows depolarization)

OVERALL it decreases heart rate by releasing Acetylcholine

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29
Q

A steroid hormone is _____ and as such will bind to a(n) _____ receptor of the cell and ultimately effect ______.

A

Hydrophobic; intracytoplasmic; transcription of a gene or genes

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30
Q

Creatine under the influence of ____ can add a PO4 on to _____ to regenerate _____. More over, as an ancillary benefit when one supplements, his or her creatine, _____ follows the creatine into the muscle cell via osmosis leading to a bloated muscle cell

THE FIRST ENERGY SOURCE USED IS CREATINE

A

Creatine kinase; ADP; ATP; water

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31
Q

Muscle soreness that occurs typically 24-48 hours after lifting heavyweights, we expect to experience the feeling associated with ______ of our actin and myosin. Post lifting, we would expect inflammation to that tissue to be _____ and, potentially based on genetics, _____ satellite stern cell recruitment to which helps to build the muscle back larger than it was before lifting.

A

Microtears: elevate; elevate

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32
Q

When myosin “heads” initially attach to actin (sans movement), this is commonly referred to as ______ formation.

A

Cross bridge

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33
Q

The primary reason why hormones are stronger or illicit a stronger physiological effect than neurotransmitters is that ______.

A

Hormones outnumbered neurotransmitters at the receptor

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34
Q

What two voltage get to channels make repolarization occur?

A

-VG K+ channel
-VG Ca++ channel

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35
Q

What is the correct sequence that describes the excitation and contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber??

A

1) an action potential in a motor neuron causes the axon to release acetylcholine, which depolarizes the muscle cell membrane
2) transverse tubulus depolarize the sarcoplasmic reticulum
3) calcium is released and binds to the troponin complex
4) tropomyosin shifts and unblocks the cross bridge binding sites
5) the thin filaments are attached across the thick filaments by the heads of the myosin molecules using energy from ATP.

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36
Q

What are functions of the skeletal muscle?

A

-Movement
-Posture
-Joint stability
-Source of nutrition
Thermogenesis???

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37
Q

Which of the following shorten during microscopic analysis of skeletal muscle contraction?

A

-H-zone
-I-band
-Sarcomere

Actin and Myosin DO NOT SHORTEN

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38
Q

IGF1 is made and released by the liver in response to GH. IGF1 has developmental effects on which of the following tissues and/or molecules?

A

-cartilage
-muscle
-bone
-skin
-liver
-kidney
-lung
-DNA biosynthesis (production)
-Hematopoesis

Insulin-like growth factor:
promote normal growth of bones and tissues

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39
Q

You are the attending physician in an emergency room. A 67-year-old patient presents with a bone fracture of the humerus. The fracture is perfectly parallel to the medullary cavity, has resulted in multiple bone fragments and has penetrated the skin. What kind of bone fracture is this?

A

-Linear
-Comminuted
-Compound

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40
Q

If there is an issue with step three of the muscle contract cycle, and the organism is living, this would commonly be referred to as a ______

A

Cramp

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41
Q

Equation for Cardiac Output?

A

Cardiac Output=
Stroke Volume x Heart Rate

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42
Q

Change in Pressure equation?

A

Change in pressure=
Q (flow) x R (resistance)

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43
Q

Baroreceptors are found where and what do they do?

A

Found in the Aortic Arch and the Carotid sinus. Pressure is detected and transmitted to the brain (Medulla Oblongata) in order to change blood pressure, heart rate, or respiratory rate

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44
Q

Vasoconstriction leads to _____ resistance?
Vasodilation leads to ____ resistance?

A

More
Less

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45
Q

What happens if you stand up too fast?

A

-become very light headed
-“head rush”
-Intracranial blood pressure goes DOWN which leads to heart rate going UP in response
-Faint

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46
Q

What happens if you stand for long periods of time, especially if you lock your knees?

A

By locking our knees, we do not flex our leg muscles which leads to less pressure (harder to move blood throughout body), our brain then gets a inadequate flow of blood to the brain bc there is not a high enough BP to move the blood to the brain

This is why you will feel light headed after locking your knees for long periods of time.

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47
Q

What are the 6 2nd Messengers??

A

1) CAMP (Ex: CAMP-dep-Kinases, add PO4 to enzymes to turn them “on” and “off”
2) CGMP
3) IP3
4) DAG
5) NO
6) Ca++

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48
Q

What does epidemics mean in this classes context?

A

= changes expression of genes without changing DNA

Regulate transcription—> Epigenetics—> Gene “on”
Gene “off”

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49
Q

Inflammatory Pathways

A

1) “HATS” = Histone Acetyl Transferase
-add acetyl groups to histones
(Promotes inflammatory pathways)

2) “HDAC” = Histone Deacetylase
-Get RID of acetyl groups to histones
(Inhibits inflammatory pathways)

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50
Q

Inflammatory Pathways

A

1) “HATS” = Histone Acetyl Transferase
-add acetyl groups to histones
(Promotes inflammatory pathways)

2) “HDAC” = Histone Deacetylase
-Get RID of acetyl groups to histones
(Inhibits inflammatory pathways)

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51
Q

What are the effects of Cortico Steroids “Cortisone shot” and when are they used

A

-decrease inflammation
-decrease pressure
-decrease pain

Allow players to play through an injury and are very controversial

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52
Q

What inflammatory pathway do Cortisol shots inhibit?

A

“HATS” = Histone acetyl transferase
-this stops inflammation from occurring by inhibiting the pathway

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53
Q

Characteristics of a Pre-Capillary Sphincter

A

-Circular band of muscle
-Smooth
-Skeletal muscle
-very thin/clear
-controls amount of blood flow into capillaries

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54
Q

What happens hemodynamically when we get scared???

A

“Fight or Flight”

-veins connected to the skeletal muscle and brain vasodilate allowing for more blood flow to these extremities
-veins connected to the Reproductive organs and GI tract vasoconstrict making it harder for blood to flow to them

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55
Q

What is a 2nd message?

A

Second messengers are intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell in response to exposure to extracellular signaling molecules—the first messengers

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56
Q

Why does an electrostatic gradient form in a resting membrane potential in cells?

A

There is more positive ions (Na+) leaving the cell than negative ions entering (K+) through Na+/K+ ATPase pumps (Active transport)

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57
Q

What are the three ways ions go in and out of the cell?

A

1) Na+/K+ ATPase Pump (Active transport)
2) Na+/K+ diffuse through the cells wall (Passive Transport/ Diffusion)
3) Slow “leak” K+ channel of potassium leaving the cell

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58
Q

Action potentials start at a value called the ______.

A

Threshold

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59
Q

T/F?
Sending bigger Action Potentials works more efficiently?

A

FALSE:
Size has nothing to do with it!!!
We send MORE A.P. not a bigger one

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60
Q

When does an Action Potential officially end?

A

When we get back to the Resting Membrane Potential

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61
Q

Action Potential Def?

A

A “wave” of depolarization along/down a cell membrane

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62
Q

An Action Potential graph appears the same as a _______ graph but the numbers are different.

A

Neuron

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63
Q

When does the Action Potential officially start?

A

When the line/graph meets the Threshold mvolts

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64
Q

When do the Na+ gates open in an Action Potential?

A

When the A.P starts and depolarization is occurring (making it more positive)

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65
Q

When do K+ gates open and Na+ gates close?

A

At the tallest peak of the A.P. graph when Repolarization starts to occur (cell starts becoming more negative)

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66
Q

When do K+ gates/channels close?

A

At the very bottom of the downward slope when Hyperpolarization starts to occur (when the cell is more negative than the resting membrane potential)

67
Q

What does an EPSP do?

A

EPSPs add positive ions such as Ca++ or Na+ to try and bring the A.P. graph closer to Threshold so it can begin the actual Action Potential

68
Q

What do IPSPs do?

A

IPSPs add Negative ions such as Cl- to bring the Action Potential line FARTHER away from threshold and decreases the likelihood of an Action Potential occurring

69
Q

Can a cell be too far away from threshold in which it is “Inactive”

A

YES!!!
If a cell is so negative and its hyperpolarized state is so far down, it will not be able to be active again

70
Q

Narcotics/opiates related to hyperpolarization?

A

Narcotics and opiates hyperpolarize neural cells so much that they become inactive. They hyperpolarize the medulla oblaganta during this time which makes your heart rate, respiratory rate, and breathing rate all not work.

SUPER DANGEROUS

71
Q

Depolarization is said to roll down like a ______.

A

Wave/dominoes falling

72
Q

What do opiates and narcotics do on an A.P. graph?

A

They make it to where the graph never reaches Threshhold, no A.P. begins making it very dangerous
(I.P.S.P.s)

Death within MINUTES

73
Q

After a Ligand binds to a receptor, it becomes a ______.

A

Channel

74
Q

When a receptor turns into a channel, it is said to be ____ ______.

A

Ion Specific

Ex: Receptor —> Channel
-Na+ comes in = EPSP

Ex: R—> C
-Cl- comes in = IPSP

75
Q

-myo

A

Muscle

76
Q

-sarco

A

Flesh

77
Q

Osteoarthritis:

A

impingement (bone on bone). Thinning of hyaline cartilage
o Bone spurs on heel!!

78
Q

Gout arthritis:

A

uric acid crystals in the joints

79
Q

Types of fractures:

Compound-
Comminuted-
Transverse-
Linear-
Oblique
Green Stick-
Spiral

A

Compound: bone penetrates the skin
Comminuted: bone is in pieces
Transverse: perpendicular with medullary cavity
Linear: parallel with medullary cavity
Oblique: at an angle
Green Stick: small break – usually in young kids
Spiral: twists wrong

80
Q

Where are dendrite cells most often found and what do they do?

A
  • Dendritic cells are most often time found in TUMORS
  • They are antigen presenting cells – they “sound the alarm”, ramp up the immune response by presenting antigens that are foreign to other cells
81
Q

What is an autoimmune disorder?

A
  • There is a lot of immune system activity when there does not need to be
  • It “attacks” itself; antibodies or immunoglobin (Ig)
82
Q

Fascia

A

Fascia: a band or sheet of connective tissue that attaches, stabilizes, encloses and separate muscles

83
Q

Type of skeletal muscle fiber found in different populations (Founder Effect)

Type 1 found where?
Type 2A?
Type 2B found where?

A

Type 1 - marathon runners (Kenyans), slowest twitch, lots of mitochondria and capillary bed density, slow oxidative and fatigues slow
Type 2 A - fast oxidative fibers, fast twitch
Type 2B - sprinters (Jamaica), Founder Effect

84
Q

Osteophyte

A
  • Bone growth that is “not supposed to be there”
  • An overgrowth of the bone
    o Most commonly a bone spur of the heel!
85
Q

Muscular dystrophy

A

refers to a group of more than 30 genetic diseases that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles used during voluntary movement

86
Q

What symptoms does muscular dystrophy diseases cause?

A

o Muscle degeneration
o Progressive weakness
o Fiber death
o Fiber branching and splitting
o Phagocytosis (broken and destroyed by scavenger cell)
o Chronic (long-term) or permanent shortening of tendons and muscles

87
Q

What does atrophy mean?

A

Atrophy – the opposite of hypertrophy; muscle is not used as much so it undergoes atrophy

gradually decline in effectiveness or vigor due to underuse or neglect

88
Q

Most prevalent amino acid in higher vertebrates?

A

-Glutamate
We have taste bud receptors so when glutamate in meat binds to it we taste “savory”
o Discovered by Japanese scientists – called it umami

89
Q

Myoblast

A

Makes/builds muscle

90
Q

List all muscle structures from smallest to largest

A

1) Myofilament
2) Myofibrils (myofiber = muscle cell = myocyte)
3) Muscle fiber (made out of myofibrils)
4) Fascicle (whole muscle = largest)

91
Q

4 steps of muscle contractile cycle. Issues with step 3 means what?

A
  1. When Action Potential hits Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – Ca++ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the Ca will bind to troponin. This moves tropomyosin out of the way exposing the myosin head binding sites that are on the actin filaments. When myosin binds it is called the cross-bridge formation.
  2. Myosin heads will “pull” actin over the top of the myosin- happens when they release the ADP and Po4 group on them. This is called the power stroke – sliding filament theory.
  3. A new ATP binds to the myosin. This causes the myosin head to detach from actin!
    a. If out of ATP – CRAMPS (gastroc) vs Rigor Mortis
  4. Myosin can not only bind ATP but can hydrolyze it to ADP and PO4 which “re-cocks” the myosin head, so it is ready to be reattached to another
92
Q

RMP!

A
  • Resting Membrane Potential
  • Charge inside the cell is more negative to the positive outside
  • All tissues have an RMP but only muscle and nervous system use this to form an action potential
93
Q

AP!!!

A
  • Action Potential
  • A wave of depolarization along or down a membrane
  • All or nothing response under normal circumstances – once an AP starts it cannot be stopped
  • There is NO SUCH THING as a “bigger or smaller” AP – it is the same every time. (you can get more or less depending on how big of an AP you want)
94
Q

What are all the integral proteins involved with Action Potentials and Resting Membranes?

A

Chlorine, potassium, calcium and sodium

95
Q

ATP hydrolysis

A
  • Against gradient – an active process. We need ATP to do this
  • This is called ATP hydrolysis, will turn a positive delta G into a negative delta G
    o Can take something that DOES NOT want to happen (Na going out, K going in) and make it happen.
96
Q

When do Action Potentials start?

A

When we get to Threshold

97
Q

When do AP end?

A

When we reach the resting value (70)

98
Q

Depolarization?

A

Depolarization (Na in) – starts making cell more +
VG Na channel will open at threshold and close at +35

99
Q

Repolarization

A

Repolarization (K out) – starts making cell more negative
VG K channel will open at 35+, starts to close around resting, but will actually close at about -90 mVs

100
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Hyperpolarization goes below resting, it is more negative than RMP
Further away from threshold – tissue will be less active or no activity at all
If VERY hyperpolarized then there is no chance to get back to threshold

101
Q

Actin, myosin ATPase, troponin, tropomyosin

A

Actin: thin myofilament
- Myosin: thick myofilament – binds ATP and hydrolyzes ATP
- Troponin: binds calcium
- Tropomyosin: blocks the myosin head binding sites (until troponin binds with Ca)

102
Q

Steps of contractile:

A
  1. Binding: myosin head binds to an exposed myosin-binding site on the actin filament
  2. Power stroke: sliding filament theory. ADP and P are released from the myosin head. Myosin head pulls actin over the top
  3. Detachment: ATP binds to the myosin head
  4. Cocking: catalyze ATP (hydrolysis): ATP ADP + P
103
Q

ATPase does what?

A

ATPase, think of the Na/K pump! This pumps 3 Na out and 2 K in (against their gradient). This is considered ATP hydrolysis which takes something that does not want to happen and makes it happen.

104
Q

Are we okay with bigger or smaller Action Potentials for more/less pain?

A

NO!!!!!!!!
The body can only send MORE AP or LESS, not about the size but number.

105
Q

What is a ligand and a ligand gated receptor/channel?

A
  • A ligand is the molecule that binds to a receptor!
  • The channel will be ion specific
    o Ex: ions start to move
106
Q

What is summation in an AP?

A

The “waves” of EPSP (towards T) and IPSP (away from T) that lead to threshold
- Made up of ligand gated receptors that will turn into channels at threshold

the summation of EPSPs and IPSPs by a postsynaptic neuron permits a neuron to integrate the electrical information provided by all the inhibitory and excitatory synapses acting on it at any moment

107
Q

What is an acetyl group?

A

A carbonyl with its carbon attached to a methyl and an R group

108
Q

Why are opiates and narcotics SO DANGEROUS?????

A

They are very dangerous because they hyperpolarize (lower the AP down past resting) the Medulla Oblongata and that is where HR, RR, BR is controlled

Can die within 6-8 minutes

109
Q

What is a histone and what size groups is it found in?

A

-It is what DNA wraps around and is usually found in groups of 8

110
Q

What is a kinase and what does it do?

A

An enzyme that adds a phosphate group
o The phosphate is typically responsible for turning pathways on or off

111
Q

Do humans have a jugular artery or Vein?

A

We have 6 jugular veins and; 3 pairs

112
Q

EPSP vs IPSP

A
  • Excitatory post synaptic potential: getting closer/ moving towards threshold
  • Inhibitory post-synaptic potential: getting further/ moving away threshold
113
Q

What is a voltage-gated channels “gate”???

A
  • Made up of Amino Acid residues that are associated with a protein
  • in short chains that can open and close
    o can have one gate or two gates
114
Q

Muscarinic vs Nicotinic Ach receptors…..which ions are involved?? EPSP?? And IPSPs? Summation

A
  • Muscarinic: IPSP
    o Goes away from threshold
    o Chlorine (anion) goes in, Potassium (cation) goes out
    o Pacemaker for the SA node of heart
    -Muscarinic receptor= IPSP, Chloride- going in and K+ out
  • Nicotinic: EPSP
    o Sodium goes in
    o Moves to threshold
    o Found in skeletal muscle
    o Ach binds to this!!
115
Q

Four main types of Integral proteins?

A

1) Channels
2) Pumps
3) Carriers
4) Receptors

116
Q

Where is an integral protein found?

A

Embedded within the cell membrane

117
Q

Why does the Na+/K+ ATPase Pump need to use ATP– engage in ATP hydrolysis?

A
  • Because the ions are going against their gradient! Low to high concentration
  • This is something that does NOT want to happen! So we use ATP
118
Q

Types of acetylcholine (ACH) receptors.

A
  • Nicotinic -opens the sodium channels
    (EPSP)
  • Muscarinic – K goes out and chlorine in
    (IPSP)
119
Q

How can the SAME neurotransmitter have markedly different affects within the body?

A

Firstly, it binds to different receptors, then those different receptors will lead to different ions moving

120
Q

AP “rolls” like a _____

A

wave down the cell membrane

121
Q

Acronyms of all second messengers

A

o cAMP
o cGMP
o IP3
o DAG
o NO
o Ca++

122
Q

Muscle soreness

A
  • Many different causes (over usage, injury, certain viruses interferons!)
  • Can be sore for no reason at all due to tension or stress
  • Three basic types of soreness
    o Immediate – muscle burns during act of muscle contraction
    Lactate to liver = Cori cycle
    o 24-48 hours after heavy lifting or over exertion, leads to tiny micro-tears in the muscle; needs to be repaired (testosterone level go UP in both gender) satellite stem cell recruitment
    o Soreness that lasts for weeks – usually extreme overexertion couple with engaging in activity the body has NOT adjusted to previously
123
Q

Satellite Stem Cell Recruitment….is that TRUE muscle building??? If so, HOW???

A
  • 24-48 hours after heavy lifting or over exertion, leads to tiny micro-tears in the muscle; needs to be repaired (testosterone level go UP in both gender) satellite stem cell recruitment

Satellite cells are situated beneath the basal lamina that surrounds each myofiber and function as myogenic precursors for muscle growth and repair

124
Q

Corticosteroid injection when a tissue is wounded….why?? Epigenetics is back! Except this time it is histone remodeling. HAT?? HDAC?? Ergo, inflammation pathways are back!

A
  • Cortisone shot into the joints; when they are trying to get pressure down, pain down, inflammation down
    o Inhibits HAT, promotes HDAC
    HAT : Histone acetylate transferases – add Ac (acetyl group)
    HDAC: Histone deacetylases – remove or don’t put on Ac
    Epigenetics: is affecting transcription but do not change DNA – can turn gene on or off
125
Q

What three majors things happen in the CORI cycle (short muscle soreness)

A

-Blood—> Tissues
-Liver (krebs)
-Liver (gluconeomyogenesis)

126
Q

What does lactate do in your body when you’re sore

A

Lactate shuttle-> Lactate -> Pyruvate-> -Blood to tissues
-liver (krebs)
-liver (gluconeomyogenesis)

127
Q

Muscle soreness type 1?

A

-Happens within seconds = low {O2}
-Burns and lactic acid builds up leading to a lower pH level
(CORI cycle)
(WALL SITS)

Break it down: Glycolysis
Insulin=> GLUT4=> 2(3u)Pyruvate=>

Make glucose:
Glucomeiogenesis

Myocyte
2(3u) Pyruvates> decrease in O2> L.D.H.> Lactic acid increases > decrease in pH> denature so change form/function

CORI CYCLE
Instead, Lactic acid gets shuttled into blood stream and goes to the LIVER,
Lactate> Pyruvate>
-back in blood stream back into tissues
-go through Krebs cycle (liver)
-go through gluconeogenesis (liver)

128
Q

Type 2 of Muscle Soreness?

A

-Lifting very heavy weights
-micro tears in muscle and takes around 24-48 hours to fully heal
-increase in testosterone which is very good for repair

129
Q

Type 3 muscle soreness?

A

Overexertion:
-days to heal bc the body was not adjusted previously to that level of work load

130
Q

Antihistamine and inhalors?

A

Antihistamines can block swelling by preventing the release of histamine, a chemical that causes blood vessels to expand and tissues to swell!!

Inhalors:
-block H1
-inhibition of Mast cells (make histamine)
(makes it easier to breath and vasodilates your lungs/veins)

131
Q

Muscle relaxants

A

-Help with tension and pain within skeletal muscle
1) Nicotinic Acetyl Choline Receptor Antagonists (Ach can’t bind)

2) increase GABA (brain) = inhibits cerebral pathways

132
Q

Pathology: Huntingtons disease and what issues does it cause

A

Cognitive and behavioral issues
(Signs usually shows after the age of 30 so most likely already passed on)

-Autosomal dominant
-Short arm of humans Chromosome #4
-“Huntingtin” gene => Too many “Cytosine Adenine Guanine repeats”

Neurological tissue issues=
-Transciption of genes issues
-Cell to cell communication issues
-Cell signaling issues

133
Q

P53 gene

A

-apoptosis
-Mitosis
-DNA Repair

Pathologist=> 50% of all human cancers have a mutated p53 gene

134
Q

1) Cardiac Muscle Cell

A

At the very top of the peak, V.G. Na+ channel closes, V.G. K+ channel and V.G. Ca++ Channel all open at the same time! (Ca++ in and K+ out)

-this creates a Plateau phase in which the graph very slowly declines

Eventually the V.G. Ca++ channel closes and the K+ channel stays open and the line goes straight down

The plateau phase is the “Absolute Refractory Period” which means NO new A.P. and helps prevent Cardiac Tetany :)

135
Q

2 A.P graph

“Pacemaker” of heart: S.A. Node

Cranial Nerve (X)?

A

-slow leak Na+ channel until we hit Threshold (EPMP)
-then V.G. Ca++ opens and goes in until it reaches its peak
-Now the VG K+ channel opens and Repolarizes the cell

(Very sharp up and down but a slow up back to Threshold with EPSPs)

S.A. Mode usually 0.5 seconds so 120 BPM :(

Cranial Nerve (X)=> Vagus nerve=> parasympathetic=> H.R. down => Ach (SANode)=> Muscorinic AcR (IPSP)=> slows down HR and now 1 second so 60 BPM

136
Q

2 A.P graph

“Pacemaker” of heart: S.A. Node

A

-slow leak Na+ channel until we hit Threshold (EPMP)
-then V.G. Ca++ opens and goes in until it reaches its peak
-Now the VG K+ channel opens and Repolarizes the cell

(Very sharp up and down but a slow up back to Threshold with EPSPs)

S.A. Mode usually 0.5 seconds so 120 BPM :(

Cranial Nerve (X)=> Vagus nerve=> parasympathetic=> H.R. down => Ach (SANode)=> Muscorinic AcR (IPSP)=> slows down HR and now 1 second so 60 BPM

137
Q

How does the Vagus nerve decrease our heart rate?

A

Cranial Nerve (X)=> Vagus nerve=> parasympathetic=> H.R. down => Ach (SANode)=> Muscorinic AcR bc it is letting Cl- in where it bonded to a ligand (IPSP)=> slows down HR and now 1 second so 60 BPM

138
Q

New A.P. #3
Smooth Muscle

A

NO SPIKE, a “Roll” instead in the graph
-VERY FEW VG Na+ Channels within the smooth muscle

-spike potentials are found in some of the “rolls/hills” which stay contracted for long periods of time

Enteric Nervous System: GUT/G.I. Tract

139
Q

New A.P. #3
Smooth Muscle

A

NO SPIKE, a “Roll” instead in the graph
-VERY FEW VG Na+ Channels within the smooth muscle

-spike potentials are found in some of the “rolls/hills” which stay contracted for long periods of time

Enteric Nervous System: GUT/G.I. Tract

140
Q

CORI CYCLE (Muscle Soreness 1)

A

Instead, Lactic acid gets shuttled into blood stream and goes to the LIVER,
Lactate> turned into Pyruvate>
Can do any of these three things
-back in blood stream back into tissues
-go through Krebs cycle (liver)
-go through gluconeogenesis (liver)

141
Q

Names for one skeletal muscle cell is/are?

A

-One skeletal muscle cell
-Myofiber
-myocyte

142
Q

Humans have ______ individual ribs which corresponds evolutionary to the number of actual thoracic vertebrae humans have

A

12

143
Q

What are the general shapes of bones?

A

-Long bones
-Short bones
-Flat bones
-Irregular bones
-Sesamoid bones

NOT FLAY BONES

144
Q

The enzymes associated with radical oxygen metabolism using H2O2 as an intermediate when an organism is an obligate aerobe is/are ________.

A

-Catalase
-Superoxide Dismutase
-Helicase

145
Q

Ibuprofen is a competitive inhibitor ______.

A

COX1

146
Q

Identify the major “exposed” arteries that most physiologists would remark are a bit more superficial than other arteries (which have evolved deeper in the body to protect them from trauma and bleeding out)

A

Femoral artery

NO JUGULAR ARTERY (its a jugular vein)

147
Q

Myopathy:

Neuropathy:

A

Myopathy – muscular disease
o Disease of muscle in which the muscle fibers do not function properly, results in muscle weakness. Primary defect is in muscles as opposed to nerves

Neuropathy – nervous/nerve disease
o Both are types of muscular disease. Affects peripheral nerves

148
Q

MAP (mean arterial pressure)

A

mean arterial pressure=
D + (S-D)/3

D: Diastolic blood pressure
S: Systolic blood pressure

Ex: 120(Systolic)/80(Diastolic)

149
Q

Allergic reaction?

A

vasodilation and bronchoconstriction

150
Q

What is the first energy source used?

A

Creatine!!!!

o Has benefit of creatine is muscle swells
Creatine shuttles into muscle, water follows it muscle swells
- Creatine has an enzyme called a kinase (adds phosphates) – to creatine. When it has the phosphate, it can give the phosphate to an ADP which regenerates ATP.
o A powder sometimes mixed with fluid
- Good at repairing tissue but can also interfere with sleep
· Only supposed to use it if working skeletal muscles intensely 20 hours a week!

151
Q

Satellite cells do what?

A

True muscle building = satellite cell recruitment, adding nuclei, and increasing gene transcription to produce more actin and myosin filaments

152
Q

Which microscopic muscles SHORTEN and which do NOT shorten?

A

Shorten:
-Sarcomeres; H band ; I band

DO NOT SHORTEN:
-Actin, Myosin, and A band

153
Q

A/O/I of Soleus muscle

A

Action: Plantar flexion of foot
Origin: Proximal shaft of tibia and fibula
Insertion: Calcaneus

154
Q

A/O/I of Gastrocnemius

A

Action: Plantar flexion of foot and flexion of leg
Origin: Medial and lateral condyle of femur
Insertion: Calcaneus

155
Q

4 muscles of the rotator cuff??

A

-Subscapularis
-Supraspinatus
-Infraspinatus
-Teres MINOR

156
Q

How do VG channels open and close?

A

VG channels open and close when acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft and binds to the acetylcholine receptors

157
Q

What is so important about 2nd messengers

A

They help turn enzymes “on (more stable and off (less stable)” through kinase which adds a phosphate

158
Q

Do Cortico shots affect HATS or HDAC??

A

They inhibit HATs decreasing inflammation, pressure, and pain and PROMOTE HDACs

159
Q

Histamine is a what

A

Vasodilator and broncoconstrictor
(Opposite of allergy)

160
Q

Do babies or grown adults have a bigger heart rate?

A

Babies have a much higher heart rate and this is because their stroke volume is so much less. There cardiac output remains the same so as one goes up the other must go down

161
Q

Why do cramps occur?

A

Dehydrated + Electrolyte Imbalance

Run out of ATP to bind

162
Q

Neuromuscular junction steps:

A

-A.P. Starts and depolarizes down the neuron
-Hits a VG Ca+ letting Ca+ into the neuron
-Ca+ bind to docking proteins and sends the vesicles forward binding, fusing, and exocytosing
-Ach (neurotransmitter (EPSP)) released from vesicles and binds to nicotenic Ach receptors
-Changed from receptors to channels and allows Na* into muscular saroplasm (Nicotenic)(EPSP)
-T-Tubule allows AP to get DEEP
-Ca++ then pumped INTO Sarcoplasmic reticulum and V.G. Ca++ channel let’s Ca+ OUT of Sarcoplasmic reticulum
-Ca++ GETS OUT and Troponin binds the calcium, tropomyosin gets out of the way
-Myosin heads want to bind (Cross bridge)
-pulls it and need new ATP to let go (Power Stroke)
-Myosin recovks by ATP hydrolases

4 VG Ca+ channels!!!
-at Neuron
-at Sarcoplasmic reticulum

163
Q

What are the different areas of VG Ca+ channels opening?

A

FOUR OF THEM
-Neuron in NMJ
-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
-Plateau Phase in Cardiac Muscle
-S.A. node “Pacemaker of heart”

A&P (5 decks)

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