A&P Test 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
The scientific investigation of human structure and form
Physiology
The scientific investigation of the function of living things
Hooke
discovered cells by looking at cork
Hippocrates (130 BC)
first to question that it wasn’t up to the gods or the stars, everything happens for a reason, began searching for answers.
Galen (130 AD)
Roman physician of the gladiators, began perfuming dissections on other animals and writing manuals about what he saw. no challengers until 1500
Vesalius (1500)
began doing dissection on humans, had to do them quickly because of no way to preserve body. Found that Galen’s manuals had some flaws because of difference between humans and monkeys. Some opposed vesalius and wanted to stick with Galen but he wrote manuals of his own and is known as the Father of Modern Anatomy
Homeostasis
the bodies ability to return to internal stability, coined by Walter Cannon.
Negative Feedback Loop
if body has over worked it becomes hot so stops working to cool down, then gets cold and works again to get hot. Body is constantly changing, e.g. heart rate. Speeds up when we run, slows down when we sleep but maintains its way around the average.
Positive Feedback Loop
body continues to change in the same direction. e.g. birth control, baby pushes on vagina and makes it contract due to hormone release, this pushes baby out some, which releases more hormones and pushes the baby out more.
3 factors of negative feedback loop
receptor - sense the change and signals it
integrator - control center
effector - takes directions from integrator and takes action to fix the problem.
hydroxyl
(OH) found in sugars and alcohols
methyl
(CH2) fats, oils, steroids, amino acids
carboxyl
(COOH) amino acids, sugars, proteins
Amino
(NH2) amino acids and proteins
Phosphate
(H2PO4)
Carbohydrates
CH2O is general formula, -sacchar is name, ends in -ose.
Polysaccharide is a long chain of glucose (monosaccharides) Cellulose and starch are two common carbs only difference is humans use starch because its easier to break down than cellulose (less bonds). Glucose is the most common, easiest for our bodies to use.
3 monosaccharides
glucose, galatose, fructose (we can’t use fructose so we break it down into glucose.
3 disaccharides
Sucrose (glucose + fructose), Lactose (glucose + galactose), Maltose (glucose + glucose)
Conjugated Carbohydrate
essential to driving cellular function, glycolipids, glycoproteins, proteoglycans.
glycolipids
more lipid than glucose, used in forming the cell membrane
glycoproteins
more protein than glucose, forms the mucus that flows through our respiratory and digestive tracts and helps cleanse them
Proteoglycans
gelatinous tissues, lubricating joints, and cell adhesion
glycocalyx
carbs of the membrane like glycolipids and glycoproteins, function is to help the immune system recognize normal cells from diseased cells or foreign bodies or transplanted cells. It helps with cell adhesion, cushioning, protection
glycogen
carb used for storing energy, when we eat we take in glucose, too much glucose for us to use so we store it in glycogen. Glycogen is produced in the liver and then stored in the liver and muscle cells. If we run out of run to store glycogen we turn it into triglycerides and store it in fat cells.
6 types of lipids
fatty acids, glycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eioconsanoids, lipid soluble vitamins
fatty acids
4-24 carbon and hydrogen molecules with a carboxyl end at one group and a methyl group at the other end. amount of carbon atoms determines function
saturated
has all of the hydrogen molecules that it can hold
unsaturated
has room for more hydrogen molecules, double bonded carbon somewhere in the chain
glycerides
fatty acids bonded to a glycerol. Triglycerides are most common type, glycerol gives an (OH) and fatty acid gives an (H), called dehydration bond. Form of energy storage and insulation (Fat cells)
phospholipids
fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), phosphate heads (hydrophilic), and attached to a function group. associated with the cell membrane
eicosanoids
chemical communicators of the cell.
leukotrienes
stimulate inflammation of the cells, results of allergies. Things get in that shouldn’t and the cells swell up. Allergy medicine stops the signal and cause the cell to reduce in swelling
prostaglandins
send chemical signal of pain to the brain. If you take meds the meds are stopping the signal, not addressing the problem.
steroids
cholesterols required for proper nervous system function. We make 85% of all of steroids, take in the other 15%, and reuse them, secreted and absorbed from small intestine.
proteins
polymers of amino acids (Monomers) with a carboxyl group at one end and an amino group at the other, also have a R group that determines function.
integrated proteins
proteins that reach through the entire membrane, help solutes flow through membrane.
peptides
2 or more amino acids grouped together by “peptide bond”. dipeptide = 2, tripeptide = 3, 15 or more = polypeptide, 100 more = protein.
protein structure
primary = chain of amino acids scondary = alpha helix or beta pleated tertiary = both alpha and beta, bonded through Rgroups. quaternary = two separate chains of polypeptides working together.
nonpolar
hydrophobic
polar
hydrophilic
amphilic
both non polar and polar combined
protein functions
structure/support, communications, movement and transport, catalysis, recognition/protection, cell adhesion
amino acids
20 total, R group signifies the function of the amino acid.
peptide bonds hold them together, very strong.
enzymes
proteins that help with cell reactions, they bond to substrates at an activation site. The purpose is to change the conformation of the substrate to reduce the activation energy. Less energy needed for reaction to occur but get same products. affected by pH and Temp
protein conformation
the 3D shape of a protein, very dynamic, always changing to help function. helps flow in and out.
protein denaturization
change in the conformation of the protein which affects the proteins function. changing with pH and Temp, e.g. cooking an egg.
protein denaturization
change in the conformation of the protein which affects the proteins function. changing with pH and Temp, e.g. cooking an egg.
effect of temp and pH on proteins
bell curve, if too hot or cold it ill not work as well, if too acidic or basic it will not work as well.
nucleic acids
found in DNA and RNA, made up of millions of nucleotides and ATP. DNA contains the codes for protein synthesis, sexual reproduction, and cell division.
nucleotides
contain nitrogenous bases, sugars, and at least 1 phosphate group. ATP has 3 phosphate groups and releases energy by cleaving off one of its own phosphates.
nitrogenous bases
adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil (RNA only)
Cell Theory
everything is made up of cells, which are the smallest living things; all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Schwann
botanist - all plants are made up of cells
Schleiden
zoologist - all animals are also made up of cells
Virchow
all cells come from pre-existing cells
microvilli
finger like projections that increase surface area to help with absorption
cilia
hairlike projections that help move mucus out of our respiratory and digestive tracts
cystic fibrosous
chloride pumps fail to make enough saline to layer our tracts Without the saline the mucus gets stuck on cilia and clogs up our tracts. This makes breathing difficult and opens our body up for infections.
plasma membrane
outer lipid bi-layer of the cell, responsible for cell shape and what travels into and out of the cell.
flagella
help cells move, sperm are the only human cells with flagella
cytoplasm
everything inside of the cell but outside of the nucleus, includes organelles and cytosol
cytosol
fluid of the cytoplasm, where many of the chemical reactions occur.
rough ER
has ribosomes attached to them for protein synthesis, also makes phospholipids for the cell membrane
smooth ER
no ribosomes at all, lipid synthesis and detoxification
golgi complex
modifies and packages proteins that are produced by RER, also synthesizes carbs. Packages proteins and carbs into vesicles and moves them around the cell for secretion or storage.
vesicles
packages products for secretion or storage, moves the proteins or carbs from the golgi to where they are supposed to go.
lysosomes
contain enzymes from digesting biological material. Helps breaks part of the cells down, old cells or dead cells.
peroxisomes
contains enzymes for detoxification, also helps digest materials leftover from metabolism of cells.
mitochondria
power house of the cell, responsible for producing ATP and providing energy to the cell for reactions
centrioles
manufactures microtubules for cytoskeleton, basal bodies, cilia, and flagella
cytoskeleton
protein filaments that are responsible for cell shape, structure, organizing organelles, and moving organelles
nucleus
brain of the cell, contains all of the DNA to tell the cell what to do
nuclear membrane
bilayer that controls what comes in and goes out of the nucleus
nuclear pores
protein rings that are integral, reach through both sides of the membrane to allow things to come in and go out.
nucleolus
produces ribosomes
chromatin
loosely packed DNA floating around the nucleus.
cytoskeleton
contains microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments
microfilaments
actin forms a network on the cytoplasm side of the membrane, helps with supporting microvili, phospholipids, cell movement and with myosin causes muscle contractions
microtubules
bundle of 13 parallel strands called protofilaments, hold everything in place and help with organelle movment
intermediate filaments
holds the skin together, reduces stress on the cells
Membrane trasnport
active and passive, passive is down conc. gradient from high to low. active is up gradient and requires energy from the cell to occur.
filtration
(kidneys) movement of articles through selectively permeable membrane due to hydrostatic pressure
facilitated diffusion
movement of particles down the conc gradient through a protein that changes its shape to allow movement, no energy is needed.
active transport
solute binds to the carrier at the receptor site. ATP is needed to change the shape of the carrier so it can fit through the protein and enter the cell. ATP is needed to change the shape of the protein and so the solute can move up the conc gradient from low to high.
uniporter
carries 1 solute into the cell
symporter
carries 2 solutes into the cell
antiporter
carriers 2 or more solutes into the cell but in different directions
receptor mediated cytosis
only specific chemicals can bind to the receptor sites, once all of the receptor sites are full then the chemicals are packed into a vesicle and brought into the cell.
transcytosis
uses receptor mediated cytosine to move things into the cell and exocytosis to move them out of the cell at the same time.
endocytosis
3 types: phaygocytosis, pinocytosis, and recpetor mediated cytosis
phaygocytosis
bringing solids into the cell through vesicles called phyagosomes
pinocytosis
cell takes in extra cellular fluid by vesicles and releases it into the cell
exocytosis
when things need to leave the cell, a secretion vesicle packages it up and carries to the membrane where it fuses with the membranes and then opens up to secret.
nuclear anatomy
brain of the cell, surround by nuclear envelope, bilayer that acts the same as plasma membrane, controls what comes in and goes out. nuclear pores, protein rings that help move things in and out by changing their shape. Chromatin is the DNA that is floating around the nucleus, histones are proteins that the DNA wraps around.
DNA
double stranded helix of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate. Has all of the codes for protein synthesis throughout the cell. Gives all of the commands for cellular functions
RNA
smaller than DNA, needed for DNA replication so the cells can divide, three types, mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA
mRNA
messenger RNA, function is to take the replicated DNA cell out of the nucleus so it can be copied
rRNA
function is to read the strand of mRNA and figure out what nitrogenous bases are needed as well as what amino acids are needed to create the new protein
tRNA
transfer RNA that bring the amino acid to rRNA and attaches it to form the peptide
Mitosis
cell replication to take the place of dead or used up cells, constantly happening, 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
prophase
DNA has condensed into chromosomes and replicated into chromatids, spindle fibers begin to form.
metaphase
chromatids begin to line up in the center of the cell, spindle fibers run from the centrioles to the centromeres of chromatids.
