A & P review p1 Flashcards
All chapters except muscles. Muscles are a separate deck.
Define physiology.
Function of human body.
Define anatomy.
Structure of human body
What is the complementarity of structure & function?
They are inseparable bc function always reflects structure.
Name the levels of structural organization.
Chemical level (atoms, molecules, organelles)
Cellular level
Tissue level
Organ level
Organ System Level
Organism Level
How many organ systems are there?
11
Name all organ systems.
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Respiratory
Excretory/Urinary
Digestive
Reproductive
Lymphatic/Immune
Name 3 things metabolism includes.
Catabolism (breaking down things)
Anabolism (building things)
Cellular respiration (using nutrients & O2 to make ATP)
Name the 8 characteristics of life.
Maintain boundaries (skin, cell membranes)
Movement (muscles, fluids through organs)
Responsiveness/Irritability (muscle reflex to stimuli, CO2 low=rapid breathing response)
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion (digestion, urinary, respiratory)
Reproduction (cells, organisms)
Growth (body part, cells, organism)
What body systems does metabolism depend on?
Digestive & respiratory to provide nutrients & O2 to blood
Cardiovascular to distribute nutrients & O2 throughout body
What regulates metabolism?
Hormones secreted by endocrine glands
Name the 5 survival needs.
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Temperature
Pressure
Define homeostasis.
Body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions
Define variable.
Factor or event being regulated.
Name the 3 components that work together in the homeostatic control mechanism.
Receptor
Control center
Effector
What does the control center do?
Determines “set point” (range @ which variable is to be maintained)
Analyzes input & determines appropriate response
Sends output to effector via efferent pathway
What is some type of sensor monitoring the environment that responds to stimuli by sending input to control center via afferent pathway?
receptor
Name types of feedback.
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
What is negative feedback?
When affect of stimuli is reduced so control process is shut off completely.
What does an effector do?
Provides the means for control center’s output to stimulus
Sends feedback to influence the effect of stimuli (either reducing or enhancing it)
Describe positive feedback.
When affects if stimuli are enhanced so control process continues at faster rate
Name axial body cavities
Dorsal
Ventral
Other
Ventral cavity includes what?
Thoracic
Abdominopelvic
What cavities are in thoracic cavity?
Mediastinum
Pleural cavities
Dorsal cavity contains which cavities?
Cranial cavity
Vertebral/Spinal Cavity
Name “other” body cavities.
Oral
Nasal
Orbital
Middle ear
Synovial
Frontal sinuses
Sphenoidal sinus (behind eye)
Define serous or serosa.
Membranes
Define parietal serosa.
Lines cavity walls
Define visceral serosa.
Covers organs in a cavity
Define serous fluid.
Thin layer of lubricating fluid separating parietal and visceral serosa.
Where is serous fluid found?
In the cavity between visceral & parietal membranes
Term for lung membranes.
Pleural membranes
Term for cardiac membranes.
Pericardial membranes (pericardium)
Term for abdominopelvic membranes.
Peritoneal membranes
Name the pleural membranes.
Visceral pleura
Parietal pleura
Name pericardial membranes
Parietal pericardium
Visceral pericardium
Fibrous pericardium
Name peritoneal membranes
Parietal peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum
What is the peritoneal cavity?
Cavity between parietal & visceral peritoneums
Define matter.
Anything that has mass and takes up space
Name 2 types of energy
Kinetic
Potential
Name the cellular form of energy needed for all life.
ATP
Where is ATP made?
Mitochondria
ATP is a product of what?
Cellular respiration
Name 4 most common elements.
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
What are neutral atoms?
Atoms with same number of protons & neutrons
Define isotope
Atom with same # of protons but different # of neutrons
What types of radiation do isotopes put off?
Alpha waves
Beta waves
Gamma rays
The larger amount of a mixture is called what?
Solvent
What is the smaller amount of a mixture?
Solute
What are valence electrons?
Electrons in outermost shell (valence shell)
Define ion.
Charged atom
Cations have what kind of charge?
Positive
Anions have what type of charge?
Negative
Is oxidation a gain or loss if electrons?
Loss of electrons
Is reduction a gain or loss of electrons?
Gain of electrons.
What is the strongest bond?
Covalent bond
What are 2 types of covalent bonds?
Polar
Non polar
What is the weakest bond?
Hydrogen
What numbers are acids on pH scale?
0-7
What numbers are bases on the pH scale?
7-14
What do acids do when put in water?
Release hydrogen atoms
What do bases do when put in water?
Release hydroxide ions (OH-)
What do neutrals on the pH scale do when put in water?
Gain and release the same amount of hydrogen and hydroxide ions
What is the pH of blood?
7.4 (7.35-7.45)
What does a buffer do?
Helps maintain pH by either picking up or dropping hydrogen ions
What do salts/electrolytes do in the body?
Conduct currents and release ions in water
What are the two most important salts/electrolytes?
Sodium
potassium
What is alkalosis?
Body pH of 7.5 to 7.8
What is acidosis?
Body pH of 7.0 to 7.3
Name the inorganic substances in our body.
Water
oxygen
carbon dioxide
salts/electrolytes
What is the most abundant inorganic substance in the human body?
Water
Name the organic substances of the body.
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic acids
Another name for carbohydrates?
Sugars
What is the chemical make-up of all sugars?
C6 H12 06
What is the most abundant monosaccharide in the body?
Glucose
What is the part of the plant cell wall that we cannot digest?
Cellulose
Human form of sugar when it is stored?
Glycogen
What is the storage form of sugar in plants?
Starch
Dehydration synthesis is used to combine what?
Monomers into polymers
What is hydrolysis used for?
Splitting polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule
Name types of lipids.
Triglycerides
steroids
phospholipids
What are the two kinds of triglycerides?
Saturated fats
Unsaturated fats
What is the most important steroid in the body?
Cholesterol
What are steroids used for?
Making vitamin D
Steroid hormones
Sex hormones
Bile salts
What is the main component of a cell membrane?
Phospholipids
Lipids help the body to use which vitamins?
A, D, E and K
What is the most diverse group of organic compounds?
Proteins
Proteins are made up of what?
Amino acids
Name several kinds of proteins in the body.
Antibodies
Enzymes
Hemoglobin
What do enzymes do?
Help out in every reaction in the body
Act as catalysts (increasing or speeding up reactions)
What does hemoglobin do?
Transports oxygen
Where is hemoglobin located?
On red blood cells
What does insulin do?
Regulates blood sugar
What was the first genetically engineered product?
Human insulin
Name two nucleic acids.
DNA
RNA
Nucleic acids are made up of what?
Nucleotides
What is a nucleotide made up of?
A five carbon sugar
A phosphate group
A nitrogenous base
What are the four bases of DNA?
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
DNA has how many strands?
2
What are the four bases of RNA?
Adenine
Uracil
Guanine
Cytosine
How many strands does RNA have?
1
What is the primary energy transferring molecule in cells?
ATP
What provides a form of energy that is immediately usable by all cells of the body?
ATP
How many times can a light microscope magnify?
1000 times
Which microscope allows objects to be seen in 3-D?
Scanning electron microscope
Which microscope allows 100,000 to 200,000 times magnification but no 3-D imaging?
Transmission electron microscope
Which microscope allows us to only see the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and the cell nucleus?
Light microscope
Name the parts of a cell.
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Cilia and flagella
What do ribosomes do?
Make proteins
Make DNA and RNA
Where are ribosomes located?
On the endoplasmic reticulum
What is the end of endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?
Transport
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?
Rough
Smooth
What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?
Protein synthesis
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?
Making lipids
Detox
Which organelle is responsible for ATP synthesis through cellular respiration?
Mitochondria
What organelle packages and sorts material?
Golgi apparatus
What do lysosomes contain?
Digestive enzymes
What are cilia?
Short, hair-like projections
What are flagella?
Long, whip-like tales
Where are flagella in the human body?
Only on sperm cells
The nucleus sends messenger RNA (mRNA) to which organelle?
Endoplasmic reticulum
What does the golgi apparatus do with the items it is sent?
Sorts, packages it and sends it out
The endoplasmic reticulum sends the object that is made to which organelle
golgi apparatus
What are the components of the cell membrane?
Phospholipids
Proteins
Name the types of passive transport.
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration
Is energy required for passive transport?
No
Describe an isotonic solution.
One which has the same solute to water concentration as inside of the cells.
What happens to cells in an isotonic solution?
They retain their shape
What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution?
They take on water by osmosis until they burst
Describe a hypotonic solution.
One that contains a lower concentration of solutes than are present in cells
Describe a hypertonic solution.
One which contains a higher concentration of solutes than are present inside cells
Describe what happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution.
Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink
What is the movement of molecules caused by mechanical force such as blood pressure?
Filtration
What is the diffusion of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane?
Osmosis
What helps a molecule pass through the lipid bilayer in facilitated diffusion?
A Protein
Does active transport require ATP?
Yes
Describe what happens in active transport.
Molecules move against the concentration gradient or flow
Name the types of active transport.
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
What are two examples of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis is described as what?
Cellular eating
Pinocytosis is described as what?
Cellular drinking
Name the types of intercellular junctions.
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions
What do gap junctions allow for?
Quick communication
What do desmosomes allow for?
Stretching
What are tight junctions?
Seals
Name the stages of mitosis.
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
What is the product of the cell cycle?
Two daughter cells
What is different about out-of-control cells such as cancer?
They do not go through interphase or apoptosis.
What is apoptosis?
Natural death of cells
What are fibrous sheets of connective tissue which may be attached to coverings of adjacent muscles?
aponeuroses
What muscles cause movement in the opposite direction of the prime mover?
antagonists
What attaches muscle to bone?
tendon
What type of muscle contraction is it if the muscle length stays the same during contraction?
isometric
What type of muscle contraction is it if the muscle contracts & its ends are pulled closer together?
isotonic
What type of muscle is found in the wall of hollow organs?
smooth muscle
What type of muscle is found in the heart & has intercalated disks?
cardiac muscle
Which muscle covers the shoulder joint?
deltoid
Which muscle is the calf muscle?
gastrocnemius
Which muscle forms the anterior arm?
biceps brachii
What is the immovable end of a skeletal muscle?
origin
What 2 electrolytes are important for nerve cell conduction and transmission of impulses?
potassium & sodium
How many cranial nerves are there?
12
How many spinal nerves are there?
31
How many cervical nerves are there?
8
How many thoracic nerves are there?
12
How many lumbar nerves are there?
5
How many sacral nerves are there?
5
How many coccygeal nerves are there?
1
What is an ionic bond?
a bond formed by the transfer of electrons & the subsequent attraction of opposite charged
Describe a hydrogen bond.
formed when a Hydrogen atom that is already covalently bonded to 1 electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom so that a “bridge” forms between them
What is passive transport?
when molecules flow with the concentration gradient
What is diffusion?
movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low one
What is facilitated diffusion?
When a protein helps a molecule pass through the lipid bilayer
A pH increase/decrease of 1 is how many times more basic/acidic?
10 times
A pH increase/decrease of 2 is how many times more basic/acidic?
100 times
A pH increase/decrease of 3 is how many times more basic/acidic?
1000 times
Name the steps of protein synthesis.
Transcription (DNA forms mRNA molecule)
Translation (mRNA meets tRNA & amino acids @ ribosome to make polypeptide chain)
Describe the steps of translation in detail.
mRNA meets up with tRNA (which brings amino acids along) in the cytoplasm at the ribosome
amino acids line up with mRNA
every 3 bases of mRNA makes a codon
completed item is a polypeptide chain
Where does translation occur?
in the cytoplasm
3 bases of mRNA makes what?
a codon
What is energy?
The ability to do work.
What is the energy currency of cells?
the ATP cycle
What does ATP stand for?
adenosine triphosphate
What are the steps of the ATP cycle?
ADP + P (energy required to form bond) = ATP
ATP - P (bond breaking releases energy) = ADP
What type of reaction is anabolism?
a building reaction
What type of reaction is catabolism?
a breakdown reaction
Is hydrolysis anabolic or catabolic?
catabolic
Is dehydration anabolic or catabolic?
anabolic
Describe hydrolysis.
adding H2O to break bonds
Describe dehydration.
removing H2O to create bonds
What is oxydation?
loss of electrons
What is reduction?
gain of electrons
What do enzymes do?
act as catalysts & increase reaction rates
All enzymes are ______ (classification)?
proteins
What make proteins?
amino acids
What are the properties of enzymes?
have a specific job have specific shape have optimal pH's & temps they work at reduce activation energy required for a reaction usually end in "ase"
Describe competitive inhibition.
When a similar molecule gets in enzyme’s active site before substrate can
Describe non-competitive inhibition.
When another molecule binds to enzyme somewhere other than active site causing it to change shape so that substrate no longer fits
What is an allosteric site?
any binding site other than the active site (of enzymes)
Where does cellular respiration occur?
on cristae of mitochondria
What is the formula for cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP
What does anaerobic mean?
without oxygen
What are the stages of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis (glucose breaks down to pyruvic acid)
Transition Reaction
(formation of acetyl coenzyme A)
Krebs Cycle
NAD+ & FAD+ pick-up/transport electrons to ETC
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
What happens to any leftover electrons after cellular respiration?
they bind with O2 to make water
What is the final electron acceptor?
O2
Which stages of cellular respiration are anaerobic?
Glycolysis and Transition Reaction
Which stages of cellular respiration are aerobic?
Krebs cycle
NAD+ & FAD+ electron pick-up/transport
Electron Transport Chain
If no oxygen is available after glycolysis, what happens?
fermentation
What are the 2 products of fermentation?
alcohol & lactic acid
How many ATPs are made in glycolysis?
2
What is the product of glycolysis?
pyruvic acid
What is formed during the Transition Reaction?
acetyl coenzyme A
How many ATPs are made during the Krebs Cycle?
2
How many ATPs are made in the Electron Transport Chain?
32
1 glucose yields how many ATPs?
36
Name the types of tissue.
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
What are the characteristics of epithelial tissue?
lines body absorbs & secretes has glands provides protection does NOT have blood supply protects
What type of cells are found in epithelial tissue?
cuboid
columnar
squamous
Explain the difference between stratified and simple epithelial tissue?
stratified - has multiple layers & a basement membrane
simple- has one layer
What are the types of glands?
endocrine & exocrine
Describe an exocrine gland.
one that excretes into a duct
Describe an endocrine gland.
one that excretes directly into tissue
What are the characteristics of connective tissue?
binds
supports
has a matrix (aka ground substance)
List some examples of epithelial tissues.
epidermis
mucous & serous membranes
What are some examples of connective tissue?
blood
cartilage
bones
adipose
What are the types of connective tissue cells?
fibroblasts
mast
macrophages
other (chondroblast, osteoblast, heatopoietic stem cells)
What do fibroblasts do?
secrete protein fibers
What do mast cells do?
secrete heparin & histamine
What do macrophages do?
eat cells (they are phagocytotic)
How are connective tissues made?
from fibroblasts
Name the types of connective tissue fibers.
Collagenous
Elastic
Reticular
What are collagenous fibers also referred to as?
white fibers
What are examples of collagenous fibers?
bone & cartilage
What is an example of elastic fibers?
vocal chords
Where would you find reticular fibers?
around the eye sockets
What does muscle do?
provide movement
What are the types of muscles?
smooth
skeletal
cardiac
Which muscle type is voluntary?
skeletal
Which type of muscle has intercalated disks?
cardiac
What does the nervous system do?
send & receive impulses
What are the types of nervous cells?
neurons & neuroglial cells
What do neuroglial cells do?
support, nourish & protect neurons
What are the major types of membranes?
serous
mucous
cutaneous
synovial
Where are serous membranes found?
lining parts of the body that do NOT open to the outside
Where are mucous membranes found?
lining parts of the body that DO open to the outside
Where are cutaneous membranes found?
epidermis & dermis
What kind of tissue are serous & mucous membranes made from?
epithelium
What kind of tissue are cutaneous membranes made from?
epithelium & connective tissues
What do goblet cells do?
secrete mucus
What kind of tissue are synovial membranes made from?
connective
What do synovial membranes do?
bind & support
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
Protection (from pathogens, dehydration) Maintain body temperature Cutaneous sensation (sensor receptors in skin) Metabolic functions (Vit. D production) Blood reservoir Excretion
Why is vitamin D important?
It allows for calcium absorption.
What specific type of cells is the epidermis made of?
stratified squamous epithelium
What are the layers of the skin?
epidermis
dermis
What is the stratum basale?
The embryonic, innermost layer of the epidermis where new cell growth takes place.
Where is the stratum basale located?
just above the basement layer
What is the stratum corneum?
The keritanized (dead), outermost layer of the epidermis.
Where would you find the basement layer?
on the bottom of epithelial cell layers
What is the papillae?
the ridges where the dermis projects up into the dermis
What creates fingerprints?
papillae
What is collagen and what does it do?
a protein that gives skin elasticity
What is keratin?
a waterproofing protein
What is melanin?
skin pigment
Where does the hair develop/grow from?
hair follicle
What is the smooth muscle found in the dermis, attached to the hair follicle, that causes the hair to become erect when cold?
arrector pili muscle
What are sebaceous glands?
oil glands
What is another term for a sweat gland?
sudoriferous gland
What are the 2 types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands?
eccrine & apocrine
Why are eccrine glands activated to cause sweat?
due to increased body temperature
Why are apocrine glands activated to cause sweat?
due to stress, nerves, pain, emotions
What are 2 types of modified sweat glands?
ceruminous & mammary glands
What is cerumin?
wax
Where are ceruminous glands located?
external ear canal
What do mammary glands do?
create milk via lactation
T/F. Stratified squamous epithelium can be found in the epidermis.
T
T/F. Smooth muscle can be found in the dermis.
T (arrector pili muscle)
What type of cells make bone?
osteoblasts
What type of cells make cartilage?
chondroblasts
What type of cells make blood?
hematopoietic stem cells
What type of cell makes collagen & extracellular matrix of connective tissue?
fibroblasts
What is the correct order of the levels of structural hierarchy from lowest to highest?
chemical level, cellular level, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
What does the lymphatic system do?
- picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels & returns it to blood
- disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
- houses white blood cells involved in immunity
What does the respiratory system do?
keeps blood supplied with O2 & removes CO2
What does the urinary system do?
- eliminates nitrogenous waste
- regulates water, electrolytes & acid/base balance of the body
What is the system responsible for reproduction?
reproductive system
What system is responsible for breaking down food into units that are able to be absorbed?
digestive system
Which body system protects deeper tissue from injury, makes vitamin D & houses cutaneous receptors/sweat glands/oil glands?
integumentary system
Which system stores minerals & forms blood cells?
skeletal system
Which system responds to internal & external changes by activating appropriate muscles & glands?
nervous system
Which system transports blood (which carries O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc)?
cardiovascular system
What form the framework of the body?
bones
What is living tissue supplied by blood vessels, lymphatic vessels & nerves?
bone
The skeleton provides structure for the body & _______ for body organs?
protection
What is the end of a long bone called?
epiphysis
What type of bone is the epiphysis made of?
spongy bone
What is the shaft of a bone called?
diaphysis
What type of bone is the diaphysis made of?
compact bone
Many of the various landmarks on bones are points for _____, _______, & ______ attachments.
tendon, ligament & muscle
Some of the landmarks on bones are spaces through which ______ & ______ pass.
nerves & blood vessels
What are constructed with fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, or synovial fluid between articulating bones?
joints
What is a site where 2 or more bones meet?
joint/articulation
What is the most freely movable joint?
ball & socket
What disease is characterized by excessive bone deposition & resorption, with resulting bone abnormally high in spongy bone?
Paget’s disease
What is the name for a number of disorders in adults in which the bone is inadequately mineralized?
osteomalacia
What is an inadequate mineralization of bones in children caused by insufficient calcium or vitamin D deficiency.
Rickets
What is a group of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposit?
osteoporosis
Who is most at risk of osteoporosis?
elderly, postmenopausal, caucasian, women
Name 6 functions of bone.
support protect movement mineral & growth factor storage hematopoiesis (making blood) fat storage
How are fractures classified?
Position (displaced/non-displaced)
Completeness of break (complete/incomplete)
Orientation of break to long axis (linear/transverse)
Penetration of skin (open/closed aka compound/simple)
What are the 4 major steps in fracture repair?
Hematoma forms (bruise)
Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
Bony callus forms
Bone remodeling occurs
What do osteoclasts do?
break down bone
Where is yellow marrow found?
diaphysis of long bones (in adults)
Where is red marrow found?
- in the epiphysis of long bones & diploe of flat bones in adults
- in all of the above plus medullary cavity in infants
What is yellow marrow made of?
fat
Which marrow is more active in hematopoiesis?
red marrow
Which bones of the body are formed by intramembranous bone growth?
skull & clavicles
Which bones of the body are formed by endochondral growth?
all bones except the skull & clavicles
What layer of tissue lies just below the skin (cutaneous layer)?
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
Which layer of the integument (skin) contains a blood supply, nerves & sensory receptors?
dermis
What is an embryo’s skeleton made of?
cartilage & fibrous membranes
What kind of ossification occurs when bone develops from fibrous membranes?
intramembranous ossification
In intramembranous ossification, what is converted to true bone matrix?
osteoid
What are osteoblasts called once they have been trapped in bone matrix and mature?
osteocysts
What is the name of the unossified remnants of fibrous membranes in a newborn’s skull?
fontanel
The human brain expands to what percent of the adult volume during the 1st year of life?
50-70%
What type of joint is an adult suture?
synarthrotic (to protect brain)
What type of joint is a newborn suture?
amphiarthrotic (to protect brain while still allowing growth)
What are the functional classifications of joints?
synarthoses (immovable)
amphiarthroses (slightly moveable)
diarthroses (freely moveable)
What are the structural classifications of joints?
fibrous
cartilaginous
synovial
What are the 3 types of fibrous joints?
syndemosis (inferior tib/fib)
suture (skull)
gomphosis (teeth roots
What are the 2 types of cartilaginous joints?
symphysis (pubic symphysis)
synchondrosis (growth plate)
What are the 6 types of synovial joints?
gliding (intercarpals) hinge (elbow) pivot (C1-C2) ellipsoid (MCP) saddle (1st CMC) ball & socket (hip)
What is the coordinating agency for all systems?
nervous system
What are the 2 structural divisions of the nervous system?
CNS (central nervous system)
PNS (peripheral nervous system
What parts are included in the CNS (central nervous system)?
brain & spinal cord
What parts are included in the PNS (peripheral nervous system)?
cranial nerves
spinal nerves
peripheral nerves
(All parts of the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord)
What are the components of the nervous system?
neurons & neuroglial cells
What are the functioning cells of the nervous system?
neurons
What are the non-conducting cells of the nervous system that protect & support neurons?
neuroglial cells
What are the 2 types of appendages or arms of a neuron?
dendrites & axons
What are the receptors of a neuron called (neuron fibers that conduct impulses to the cell body)?
dendrites
What part of a neuron conducts impulses away from the cell body?
axons
What is the “reflex arc?”
the complete pathway from stimulus to response
What does the receptor (dendrite) do?
detects stimulus
What are the afferent neurons called (carry impulse to CNS)?
sensory neurons
Where are impulses coordinated & a response to a stimulus organized?
CNS (central nervous system)
What are the efferent neurons called (carry impulse away from CNS)?
motor neurons
What is the muscle or gland outside CNS (central nervous system) that carries out the “response?”
effector
