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Semester 2 > A&P Exam 3 > Flashcards

A&P Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

How does Boyle’s Law relate to pulmonary ventilation?

A

Gasses fill containers
If it is a large volume→ molecules don’t hit each other, so there is low pressure
If small area → molecules will hit wall and each other often = high pressure
P1V1=P2V2

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2
Q

What happens during quiet inspiration?

A

Inspiration → enlarge thoracic cavity
Decreases pressure (less than atmospheric) → air moves in

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3
Q

What Muscles are used in inspiration?

A

-Flattens diarphragm= increase height of the thoracic cavity
-External intercoatals= lift ribs and sternum= greater diameter by a few m
-Decreases pressure by 1mmHg=500ml

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4
Q

What Happens during deep inspiration?

A

-7x= 3500ml
-Mucles:
Accessory muscles →scalenes, …→ scalenes erect spine

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5
Q

What happens during normal expiration?

A

-Muscles engaged in inspiration relax= causes passive recoil
-Decreases thoracic cavity volume→ decreases volume→ increase pressure by 1mmHg

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6
Q

What Happens During Forced Exhale?

A

-Oblique and transverse abs–>Force abdominal organs against the diaphragm
-Internal Intercostals–>Depress rib cage further
-Both of these decrease thoracic volume which increases pulmonary pressure

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7
Q

Cough

A

-deep breath, close glottis, force air out, open glottis, air rushes out

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8
Q

Laugh/cry

A

inspiration and several short expirations

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9
Q

Sneeze

A

cough through your nose

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10
Q

hiccups

A

diaphragm spasms

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11
Q

Yawn

A

deep inspiration, jaw opens, ventilates alveoli

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12
Q

Airway Resistance

A

-flow= change and pressure over resistance
-Resistance–>medium bronchi
-Flow stops at terminal bronchial b/c diffusion takes over

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13
Q

Alveolar Surface Tension

A

-Water molecules are polar, so they are attracted to each other= surface tension
-This attraction by itself would collapse alveoli
-Surfactant= lipid protein detergent →Type 2 alveolar cells→ decrease water cohesion

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14
Q

Homeostatic Imbalance in Surfactant

A

-Premature infants born with respiratory distress
-Alveoli/ lungs collapse
-Treatment is artificial surfactant

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15
Q

Lung compliance

A

-Healthy lungs are compliant and stretchy more the lungs expand w/ an increase in transpulmonary pressure= more compliance

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16
Q

Homeostatic Imbalance in Lung compliance

A

-Inflammation
-Scarring or decrease surfactant
-Less compliant
-Makes it hard to breath

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17
Q

Tidal volume

A

-500ml
-amount of air exchanged in normal quiet inhale

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18
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume

A

-the amount of air that may be inspired after a tidal inspiration
-1,900-3,100 mL

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19
Q

Expiratory reserve volume

A

-amount of air that may be expired after a tidal respiration
-700-1,200mL

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20
Q

Residual volume

A

-the amount of air in the lungs after maximal expiration
-1,100-1,200mL

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21
Q

Inspiratory capacity

A

TV+IRV
Amount of air a person can maximally inspire after tidal volume
2,400-3,600

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22
Q

Functional residual capacity

A

-amount of air left in lungs after tidal expiration
-ERV+RV
-1,800-2,400

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23
Q

Vital capacity

A

-total amount of exchangeable air in and out of the lungs
-3,100-4,800mL
-TV+IRV+ERV

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24
Q

Total lung capacity

A

-total amount of exchangeable and non exchangeable air in the lungs
-TV+IRV+ERV+RV

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25
Q

Dalton’s Law

A

Total Pressure= sum of partial pressure

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26
Q

Dalton Law w/ Air

A

Air= 760 mmHg (100%)
-79 % nitrogen=597 mm Hg
-21% Oxygen=159 mm HG
-0.04% CO2=0.3 mmHg
-0.5% H2O=3.7 mmHg

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27
Q

Henry’s Law

A

-Gas will dissolve in liquid in portion to partial pressure
-How much also depends on gas solubility and temperature

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28
Q

Example of Henry’s Law with Air

A

-CO2 most soluble
-O2 1/20th as soluble
-N2=Poorly Soluble

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29
Q

What is the respiratory membrane?

A

Alveoli= 300x 10^6
Most of the lung column is alveoli= a lot of surface area for gas exchange

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30
Q

3 Types of Alveoli Cells

A

1.Type 1
2.Type 2
3.Alveolar macrophages

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31
Q

Type 1 Alveolar Cells

A

Alveolar cells
Flimsy basement membrane
Pulmonary capillary endothelium
Respiratory membrane 0.5 micron

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32
Q

Type 2 Alveolar Cells

A

-Make surfactant
-Make surface tension

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33
Q

Alveolar Macrophages

A

-Dust cells= sweep what we don’t want
-Keep things sterile
-Swept up by cilia
-At a rate of 2 million cells an hour we swallow what is swept up

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34
Q

External respiration

A

-co2 in blood→air
-deoxyhemoglobin(O2=40and CO2=45 and gets swapped) encounters
pulmonary gas exchange and becomes oxyhemoglobin (O2=100 and CO2=40)
-driven by pressure

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35
Q

Internal respiration

A

-gas exchange that occurs with tissues
-blood has O2=100 and CO2=40 and tissue has O2-40 and CO2=45
-O2 enters and Co2 leaves tissue

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36
Q

Cellular respiration

A

6o2+C6H12O6→6H2O+6CO2+ATP(E) +Heat

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37
Q

Factors that Influence Gas Exchange

A

1.Partial Pressure and solubility of gas
-O2 gradient larger, but still reaches equilibrium in ¼ a second
-Co2 gradient is small and is 20x more soluble
-Need stable Co2 for blood pH
2.Thickness of respiratory membrane
-Can increase b/c of scaring
3.Ventilation-perfusion coupling
-Match Ventilation to blood flow in pulmonary capillaries
-If O2 is low= pulmonary capillary constriticion which moves blood to respiratory areas where O2 is high
-If O2 is high = dilation
-If Co2 is high =bronchial dilation

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38
Q

What percent of blood is dissolved and what percent is not?

A

1.5% is dissolved= poorly soluble
98.5% Hb bound= oxyhemoglobin= HbO2

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39
Q

Describe how oxygen binding changes Hb shape and affinity

A

-1 molecule of hemoglobin carries 4 O2 molecules
-First O2 binds to Hb→ Hb changes shape→ greater affinity for O2
-Makes it easier to bind 3 other O2
-4 O2=saturated

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40
Q

What Decreases Hemoglobin saturation?

A

Greater temp
Lower pH
Greater Co2

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41
Q

What increases Hb saturation?

A

-Less temp
-Lower pH
-Lower CO2
-Metabolically active tissue

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42
Q

Briefly describe the right shift vs left shift of the O2-Hb dissociation curve

A

Right shift in Curve=
-Increase saturation
-Weakens Hb and O2 bond which decresaes affinity
Bohr Effect:
A. Lower pH & increase Co2= more O2 release
B.Exercise= need more O2 for muscles
-Increase blood flow
-O2 is unloading at the muscle
-Decrease Hb affinity(attraction) to O2

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43
Q

HI in Oxygen Saturation

A

1.Hypoxia-Inadequate O2 Delivery
2.Cyanosis-Hb saturation is less than 75%
3.Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
-Hb has high affinity for Co2
-After 1 hr of pure O2, but Co levels will only drop by 50%

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44
Q

3 ways CO2 is transported

A

1.Plasma
2. Hemoglobin
3. Bicarbonate

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45
Q

How much Co2 is Transported in Plasma

A

20%=pCO2

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46
Q

How much of the body’s Co2 is in hemoglobin and how does it bind to it?

A

-20%–>CO2Hb=carbaminohemoglobin
-Bind to globin not heme but decreases affinity (more O2 released)
-In lungs → O2 “kicks off” Co2

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47
Q

How much CO2 is carried by bicarbonate and how is it carried in bicarbonate?

A

-70%
-Steps
1.Co2 enters RBC with water
2. + Carbonic Anyhydrase=H2Co3
-Carbonic acid
-unstable/ dissociates
3. →H + HCO3(bicarbonate)
4.Bicarbonate goes into plasma and chloride shift occurs causing cl-
ions to enter counteracting the trreease of an Ions
4.The H binds to hemoglobin causing the Bohr Effect= release O2 into tissue
and cells

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48
Q

How is ventilation controlled?

A

1.Control of pH by ventilatory Rate
2.Neural Control

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49
Q

how does pH control ventilation?

A

-Co2 increase in blood= slow shallow breaths= decrease pH and more carbonic acid
-Decrease co2 in blood= rapid and deep breathing= increase pH

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50
Q

How do Neural Controls Effect Ventilation?

A

High brain centers
1. Hypthalymus: pain and emotion
Cerebral Cortex: voluntary
2. Medulla: Inspiratory Center
Starts and stops inspiration
pacemaker= 12- 16 breath per minute
Sends impulses to the diaphragm via phrenic nerve
Sends impulses to incercoastal muscles via intercostal nerves
3. Pons
Smooths out the breathing rhy

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51
Q

What factors influence Respiratory Rate?

A

1.Chemoreceptors
2.Mechanoreceptors

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52
Q

How do Chemoreceptors influence respiratory rate?

A

-In aortic arch, brain, and muscles
1.Arterial CO2
Increase Co2= lower pH= increase respiration
pCo2>23Hg= hypercapnia
pCO2,37mmHg=Hypocapnia
decreasepCO2= increasepH= decrease Respiration
2.Arterial H+
decreasepH= increase respiratory rate
3.Arterial pO2
Less sensitive
<60mmHg

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53
Q

How do mechanoreceptors influence respiratory rate?

A

-Irritant receptors and stretch
-Increases or decreases respiratory rate

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54
Q

Respiratory Tracts as an embryo

A

Development is cephalocaudal

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55
Q

Respiratory tract 4 weeks into development

A

Olfactory Placodes→Olfactory pits →Nose
Palate–>Cleft lip/ palate occurs at this time

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56
Q

Respiratory Tract at 28 weeks of development

A

Can breath
No surfactant
Breath→ amiontic fluid, vascular shunts bypass lungs

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57
Q

Respiratory tract at birth

A

Respiratory rate= 60/min

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58
Q

Respiratory tract post birth in life

A

-5 years= 25/min
-adult=12/min
Age:
1. Increases respiratory rate, loss or elasticity, nose dry, mucus thicker
2.Decrease in ciliary activity = increase infections
3.Sluggish macrophages

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59
Q

Kidney Location

A

Located behind the the peritoneal cavity →retroperitoneal
Right kidney is lower than the left
Renal fascia and perirenal fat capsule support and hold it in place

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60
Q

Kidney Structure

A
  1. Capsul
    -Fibrous
    -Protects and encloses
  2. Cortex
    -Outer layer
    -Collecting ducts and nephrons are located here
  3. Medulla
    -Interior from cortex
    -Contains pyramids
    -Where urine is made
    -Has renal papilla on it’s central end and drains into the minor calyx
    -Minor Calyx drains into major calyx → renal pelvis to
    Ureter→renal bladder
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61
Q

Kidney Functions

A

-Processes blood
-Goes through entire blood plasma a day
blood= 1,200ml/min →120ml/min filterate=180L/day in filterate, but 99% is
reabsorbed= 1.5 L of urine left over

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62
Q

What do nephrons make

A

filterate

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63
Q

Parts of nephron

A

Renal Corpuscle has glomerulus
→proximal convoluted tubule→nephron loop→distal convoluted tubule→
nephron collecting duct

64
Q

2 Types of Nephrones

A

Cortical
Juxtamedullary

65
Q

juxtaglomerular complex structure

A

Blood comes in through the afferent arterial
Blood exists through the efferent arteriole
b/w the arterioles there and ascending limb of nephron connected by macula densa
Granular cells are on the outside of arterioles

66
Q

What does the macula densa of the juxtaglomerular complex do?

A

Monitor sodium concentration
Chemoreceptors

67
Q

What is occurring if the filtrate has a high sodium chloride content?

A

-Filtrate is being made to fast
-macula Densa Releases chemicals to constrict afferent arteriole

68
Q

What is occurring if the filtrate has a drop in sodium chloride content?

A

Filtrate is being made to slow
Dilate arterioles and stimulate granular cells

69
Q

What do the Granular Cells of the juxtaglomerular complex do?

A

-Mechanoreceptors
-SM muscle cells contain granules filled w/ renin
-Function as type of baroreceptor and regulate BP

70
Q

What happens with granular cells if there is a drop in BP?

A

-Slows flow
-These cells release Renin→ increases BP
-BP can increase this with increased SNS causing renin release

71
Q

Main Steps of Urine Formation

A

1.Glomerular Filtration
2.Tubular Reabsorption
3.Tubular Secretion

72
Q

What does glomerular filtration do and where is it located?

A

-In renal corpuscle
- Ensures filtrate is with out cells or protein with it’s filtration membrane

73
Q

What are the components of the filtration membrane and their functions?

A
  1. Fenesterated epithelium
    - Stop large cells from entering filtrate
  2. Basement membrane
    -Restrict proteins, negatively charged repels proteins
    3.Foot process of podocytes
    -Filtration slits that further block protein
74
Q

What is in filtrate and capillaries?

A

-Filter H2O, glucose, amino acids, urea, salts
-leave in capillary: proteins (COP), WBC, RBC

75
Q

How does hydrostatic pressure effect filtration in glomerular filtration?

A

-pushes blood through the filteration membrane to make filterate
-Pushes out water and solutes
-blood=55mmHg
-Capsule hydrostatic pressure=15mmHg

76
Q

How does Colloid Osmotic Pressure effect filtration in glomerular filtration?

A

-Protein in blood sucks fluid out of capsule
-blood = 30mmHg

77
Q

What is the net filtration pressure in glomerular filtration?

A

55-(30+15)=10mmHg out

78
Q

What is tubular reabsorption?

A

-Reclaim what body wants to keep
Ex. glucose, water, amino acids, ect.
-What is left makes urine→ unneeded substances (excess salt, excess water, waste)

79
Q

How do lipid molecules move in the proximal convoluted tubule in tubular reabsorption?

A

Diffuses through the membrane → urea
Makes it hard to excrete lipid soluble drugs and pollutants

80
Q

How do sodium molecules move in the proximal convoluted tubule in tubular reabsorption?

A

-Actively pumped out of tubules through cells via sodium potassium atpase pump
-Diffuses into capillaries
-Makes and osmotic gradient →H2O follow through aquaporins
-Creates an electrochemical gradient
-Sodium and HCO3 follow passively

81
Q

How does carriers of glucose and amino acids move in the proximal convoluted tubule in tubular reabsorption?

A

-Use energy of concentration gradient
(secondary active transport)
-Max→excess into urine
1. T Max of glucose= 375 mg/min
2. Plasma glucose>190 mg/dl→ “spill

82
Q

What happens after absorption in proximal convoluted tubule?

A

-65% of Nacl and water
-Nearly all K+
-All glucose and amino acids
-Things left now lack carrier proteins and are lipid soluble

83
Q

What occurs in the nephron

A
  1. Descending limb
    -Water leaves and is reabsorbed
  2. Ascending
    -Sodium pumped out and reabsorbed
    -No aquaporins
84
Q

What do distal convoluted tubules do in tubular reabsorption?

A
  1. Principal cells-
    -Few microvilli
    -Deal w/ NaCl
    2.Intercalated Discs-
    -Many microvilli
    -Deal w/ acids and bases

-Have 10% NaCl and 25% water left
-Urine adjusts to body’s needs using hormones

85
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone

A

Released by posterior pituitary
Inserts aquaporins into principal cells
Releases if serum osmotic pressure osm >300 mOSM

86
Q

Aldosterone

A

-Formed in adrenal cortex
-Decrease blood volume or increase potassium→release ADH→ Angiotension 2→Aldosterone
-Make more sodium/ potassium pumped into principal cells into distal convoluted tubule and and CD
-Keeps Na in the body, potassium in filtrate, water follows sodium

87
Q

Atrial Naturetic peptide (ANP)

A

-Atrial cardiomyocytes release= increase BP and B. Vol which decreases renin=
-Decrease aldesterone= decrease= excrete excess NaCl and H2O

88
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

Reabsorbs calcium in DCT

89
Q

steps of urine formation

A

1.glomerular filtration
2. Tubular Reabsorption
3. Tubular Secretion

90
Q

Tubular Secretion: Where does this take place? What is secreted into the filtrate?

A

-Fine tune body’s chemical balance
-Selected waste added
-PCT and some DCt and CD
-Disposes of unwanted things not already in filterate
-Organic acid and base pump
-Ammonia, catecholamines, bile salts
-Sulfuric and phosphoric acid, uric acid
-Eliminate undesirable things that were reabsorb= uric acid and urea
-Rids body of excess K
-Controls blood pH
-Decrease pH=excess H, retains HCO3
-Increase in pH= retain cl instead of HCO3

91
Q

Explain how hydration and dehydration regulate urine volume and concentration

A

When dehydrated= increase urine concentration
When hydrated= increase urine dilution

92
Q

Define osmolality

A

-Osm
-1 mole of paticles/1kg H20=milliosmoles=0.001 Osm

93
Q

What happens in the nephron loop?

A

-Thin simple squamous epithelium, variable permeability
-Allows hypotonic filterate to form
-Descending
-Has aquaporins so is permeable to water not NaCl
-Water moves out osmotalitly and sodium chloride stays
-Concentration is 300- 1200 mOSM
-Ascending
-Pumps Nacl pumps out Nacl out, water is blocked
-Creates osmotic gradient in interstitial fluid of the medulla

94
Q

Distal Convoluted Tubule Sodium and Water %

A

Have 10% NaCl and 25% water left
Urine adjusts to body’s needs using hormones

95
Q

Cells of the distal convoluted tubule and what they do

A

1.Principal cells-
-Few microvilli
-Deal w/ NaCl
2.Intercalated Discs-
-Many microvilli
-Deal w/ acids and bases

96
Q

What hormones affect reabsorption?

A

Antidiuretic Hormone
Aldosterone
Atrial Naturetic peptide (ANP)
Parathyroid Hormone

97
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone

A

-Released by posterior pituitary
-Inserts aquaporins into principal cells
-Releases if serum osmotic pressure osm >300 mOSM

98
Q

Aldosterone

A

-Formed in adrenal cortex
-Decrease blood volume or increase potassium →release ADH→ Angiotension 2→ Aldosterone
-Make more sodium/ potassium pumped into principal cells into distal convoluted tubule and CD
Keeps Na in the body, potassium in filtrate, water follows sodium

99
Q

Atrial Naturetic peptide (ANP)

A

-Atrial cardiomyocytes
-release= increase BP and B. Vol which decreases renin=Decrease aldesterone= decrease= excrete excess NaCl and H2O

100
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

Reabsorbs calcium in DCT

101
Q

Tubular Secretion

A

-Fine tune body’s chemical balance
-Selected waste added
-PCT and some DCt and CD
-Disposes of unwanted things not already in filterate
-Organic acid and base pump
-Ammonia, catecholamines, bile salts
Sulfuric and phosphoric acid, uric acid
-Eliminate undesirable things that were reabsorb= uric acid and urea
-Rids body of excess K
-Controls blood pH
-Decrease pH=excess H, retains HCO3
-Increase in pH= retain cl instead of HCO3

102
Q

Define osmolality

A

Saltiness of the medulla
1 mole of paticles/1kg H20=milliosmoles=0.001 Osm

103
Q

What happens in the nephron loop?

A

-Thin simple squamous epithelium, variable permeability
-Allows hypotonic filterate to form

104
Q

What occurs in the descending nephron loop?

A

-Has aquaporins so is permeable to water not NaCl
-Water moves out b/c of the external osmolality and sodium chloride stays
-Concentration is 300 at start and 1200 mOSM at bottom o f the loop

105
Q

How is micturition controlled?

A
  1. Blader fills 200mL
    -Stretch receptors–>PSNS tells brain –> I need to pee
    -Spinal reflex → detrusor m. contract internal
    urethra sphincter relaxes
    2.If Brain says Hold, Bladder relaxes and waits for next 200mL
    3.Void
    -Pons increases PSNS
    -Relaxes urethral sphincter
    -At 600ml= you will go
    4.Residual Volume= 10ml
106
Q

Incontinence

A

-Stress on pelvic floor (stretches) from:
Overfilled bladder
Childbirth
Surgery
Urinary retention (after anesthesia)
Enlarged prostate

107
Q

Newborn to 18mths Micturition

A

New=Can’t concentrate urine= void 5-40 times/day
1-2mths= 400mL per day
15months= know void
18 months=
-Hold urine x2 hours
-Control of external uretheral sphincter

108
Q

4 year old micturition

A

night lack of control

109
Q

Adult Micturition

A

Void 1500mL per day

110
Q

Micturition as we age

A

Decrease in kidney function b/c decrease in nephron #
Drop by 50% at age 80
Drop of bladder capacity by 50% at 80
Incontinence and nocturia

111
Q

what occurs in the ascending limb of the nephron loop?

A

1.Pumps Nacl pumps out Nacl and 2Cl out, water is blocked
-NaCL =cotransport
2. K is pumped out
-Creates positive charge on membrane
-Mg and Chloride both positive ions leach out of membrane in places where the positive potassium is not present=Paracellular transport

112
Q

What does the medullary gradient need to be

A

-salty
-can be wiped out if really overhydrated

113
Q

Overhydration Causes what?

A

1.Decrease of osmollality of extracellular fluids
2.Decreases ADH from posterior pituitary
3.Decreases the number of aquaporins in collecting duct
4.Decreases water reabsorption from the collecting duct
5.Creates a large volume of diffuse urine

114
Q

What does Dehydration do?

A

Increases osmolality in extracellular fluid
Increases ADH release from posterior pituitary
Increases number of aquaporins
Increase H2O reabsorption
Makes small volume of concentrated urine

115
Q

What % of pee is solute?

A

95% water/ 5% solutes

116
Q

What causes different colors of urine?

A

yellow= urochrome from breakdown of hemoglobin
pink/brown= beets and stuff
cloudy= infection

117
Q

What causes urine odor?

A

Odor= bacteria breakdown of bacteria

118
Q

Urine pH

A

pH 4.5-8

119
Q

t causes a fruity urine odor?

A

fruity=diabetes

120
Q

What is specific gravity?

A

-Ratio of density of urine to distilled water
-Increases with increased solute

121
Q

What is the specific gravity of water and urine?

A

Water= 1
urine=1.001-1.035

122
Q

3 Types of Kidneys that form as embryos

A

Pronephros
Mesonephros
Metanephros

123
Q

Pronephros

A

4-6wks
Form degenerate
Pronephric duct stay

124
Q

Mesonephros

A

2nd-3rd month
Pronephric duct → mesonephric duct
Male= ductus deferens
Female= disappears
Function until final kidney development
Amniotic fluid= urine produced starting 3 months

125
Q

Metanephros

A

Wk 5
Uretic bud from endoderm
Makes ureter, renal pelvis, and collecting ducts
Metanephric bud b/cms nephrons
Kidneys ascend to final position

126
Q

HI in Kidney development

A

-horseshoe kidney
-can live fine with it

127
Q

Lipid Soluble Hormones

A

aka Steroids
Made from cholesterol
Made by gonads and adrenal
Can go through the pa=lasma membrane
Made to order
Long-half life in blood (days)
Need to be metabolized by the liver

128
Q

Water Soluble Hormones

A

-Amino acid Based
Can’t cross plasma membrane
Can be stored in gland
Most hormones
Aka proteinaceous
Bits of peptide or protein
Modified amino acids→ thyroid, epinephrine, or norepinephrine
Short half life in blood (mins)–> removed by the kidneys

129
Q

How do hormones act?

A

-Hormones effect cells w/ specific receptor= target cells
-Effect is to increase or decrease activity of cells

130
Q

What do hormones effect one attached to receptor?

A

1.alter plasma membrane permeability by opening/ closing ion channels
2. Stimulate synthesis of enzyme and protein
3.Activate or deactivate enzyme
4.Induce secretion of exocrine or endocrine glands
5. Stimulate mitosis

131
Q

How do Proteinaceous hormones bind to receptors?

A

-Water soluble
-Do not need a carrier
-Bind to plasma membrane receptors= G protein coupled receptors which activate 2nd messenger (cAMP)–>trigger a preprogrammed response in cell

132
Q

How do Lipid Soluble hormones bind to receptors?

A

Need a carrier in blood
Bind to intracellular receptor
Directly activate genes

133
Q

Hormones are a negative or positive feedback loop?

A

negative

134
Q

3 stimuli that control the release of hormones

A
  1. Humoral Stimulation
    -Ions= K and Ca
    -Nutrients= Glucose, amino acide
    2.Neural Stimulation
    -SNS→ adrenal medulla→epi and norepinephrine
    3.Hormonal Stimulation
    -Tropic hormones cause hormone release
    -Glands may respond to mmore than 1 hormone
135
Q

Permissiveness with hormones

A

A Must be there for B to have effect

136
Q

Synergism with Hormones

A

-A has effect
-B has effect
-A+B increases effects

137
Q

Antagonism with Hormones

A

A opposes the effects of B

138
Q

The medullary osmotic gradient is determined by the permeability properties of the what?

A

nephron loop

139
Q

Renin is released by granular cells in the afferent arterioles when what occurs?

A

macula densa cells detect low NaCl levels

140
Q

Where in the nephron loop does a filtrate become hypotonic?

A

ascending limb

141
Q

Oxygen moving into the tissue and CO2 moving into the blood from the tissues is caused by what?

A

diffusion

142
Q

The part of the nephron that makes a filtrate hypertonic?

A

descending limb

143
Q

What does the macula densa do if it senses to much NaCl in the filtrate in the ascending limb of the nephron loop

A

constrict afferent arterioles

144
Q

What is when oxygen moves into blood and CO2 moves out?

A

External respiration

145
Q

What occurs with the glomerulus during dramatic blood loss?

A

filtration rate will go down

146
Q

WHat kind of blood pressure is regulated by the kidneys?

A

-long term

147
Q

What is always negative to prevent lung collapse?

A

Interpleural Pressure

148
Q

When oxygen binds to Hb, how does shape change?

A

changes to increase affinity to oxygen until Hb is all filled up

149
Q

what is the most important factor in respiratory rate?

A

pCO2

150
Q

What is the least important factor in air flow?

A

resistance

151
Q

after sodium is reabsorbed it creates what 2 gradients?

A

-active as water follows salt
-passive as anions follow passively

152
Q

What keeps the trachea from collapsing

A

1.Catilaginous rings
2.Trachealis muscle

153
Q

Intrapleural pressure is typically what?

A

-negative

154
Q

Oxygen and CO2 are exchanged in the lungs via what?

A

diffusion

155
Q

What pressure works to collapse the lungs?

A

-surface tension of the alveolar fluid

156
Q

Types of pressure in the renal corpuscle

A

Hydrostic and colloid

157
Q

How to calculate net filtration?

A

H-C=NF

Semester 2 (7 decks)

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