A&P Exam #2 Flashcards
How are blood flow, resistance, and pressure related? What is the equation?
F= delta P, F=1/R, F= delta P/R
How does exercise change blood flow to specific tissues?
SKM= arterioles dilate (metabolic)=Less BP → extrinsic SNS increases→ BV constriction → Decrease BV to guts/ kidneys
Elastic arteries
-near heart→aorta And branches
-Pressure reservoir, expand and recoil
Muscular Arteries
-Deliver O2 to organs→ distribution
-thickest tunica media= vasoconstriction
Arterioles
-Regulate blood flow, most resistant
-Can constrict or dilate from hormones, neural cues, and chemicals
Continues Capillaries
least permeable (tight junction), most common: skin, CNS, muscles
Fenestrated Capillaries
filtration, absorption(intestines), large pores= greater permeability
Sinusoid Capillary
most permeable: liver, marrow, spleen, medulla, v. large pores
Precapillary Sphincter
Regulates flow in and out of capillaries
Venules
leaky capillaries
Veins Details
-65% of blood volume= blood resevoir
-valves= prevent backflow of blood (tunica intima=sl valves)
Venous sinuses
Varicose Veins
-Leaky valves
-from genetic, obesity, pregnancy, and hormones
Tunica Intimina
-simple squamous
-inner most layer
-Elastic membrane
Tunica Media
-Circular smooth muscle
-Elastic membrane
-Controlled by SNS, hormones, chemical,= vasodialation or vasoconstriction
Tunica Externa
-layer
-Loose collagen= anchor and protect
-Has elastic fibers,nerves, vaso vasorum
How does Blood flow
areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
Blood Flow (F)
Volume of blood per minute
Blood Pressure
-Force Exerted on Vessel wall by flowing blood
-pressure gradient is a force that keeps blood moving
Blood Resistance (TPR)
-caused by viscosity
-vessel length
-BV diameter
What happens when LV Contracts (Arterial Pressure)
-blood stretches aorta
-systolic BP= 120 mmHg
-high pressure from blood in arteries
What happens when LV Relaxes?
-caused by aortic SL valve closing
-aorta wall recoils= keeps blood flowing
-Diastolic BP= 80mmHg
How doe elastic arteries keep blood flowing?
auxillary pumps
What is Pulse Pressure
Systolic-diastolic= 40mmHg
MAP Formula
MAP=DBP+ pulse pressure (PP)/3
What decreases as you move away from the heart?
Pulse pressure, MAP, and elastic recoil
Blood Pressure in Capillaries
35-17 mmHg
What happens when the capillary pressure is to great
-capillary walls are fragile and permeable
-greater pressure creates too much filtration
Venous BP
17-10mmHg
What helps veins bring blood back towards the heart?
-muscular pump
-Respiratory pump
-SNS Venoconstriction
Muscular Pump
muscle contracts and moves blood
Respiratory Pump
-inhale= air into lungs and blood into heart
SNS Vasoconstriction
-decrease vol. of blood in the venous system
-increase heart flow to the heart
What does increase Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) do?
-increased resistance from increased constriction and thus afterload
-increased Cardiac Output= increased stroke volume and HR and SNS
What are the 2 ways Blood pressure is controlled?
- Short Term= Neural and Hormonal
2.Long term= renal
What happens if MAP decreases?
1.stretch decreases
2. decrease firing of CN 9 & 10= increase SNS & decreased SNS
3. Increase Stroke Volume
4. Increase Contractility
5. Increase Heart Rate
6. Increase Venous Constriction= more blood return
7. Increase arteriole constriction
What brings MAP to set point?
-increase CO
-Increase Resistance
Baroreceptors
-Found: internal carotid sinus and aortic arch
1. Sends signals of stretch to cardio inhibitory center (solitary nucleus)
2. Sends back PSNS Response
-Less HR
-Less contractility
3. Send Signals back SNS
-Cardiac Center
-To sympathetic trunk ganglia→ more heart rate,more contractillity
-Vasocconstrict blood vessels
Tells kidneys (RAAS)
Hypertension
When baroreceptors acclimate to high bp
What happens to increase MAP
-turns of SNS
-decrease HR
-decrease contractility
-dilate aerials= decrease resistance
-dilates veins for quick venous returns
Chemoreceptors
-see if there is low O2, low Ph, or to much CO2
-Increases HR and release of CO2
-Increases vasoconstriction
-Increases resistance= greater MAP
2 Types of short Term Hormone Control of BP
- paracrine
2.Endocrine
What do short term paracrine hormone do?
-match blood flow to metabolic needs of tissue
What are the short term Endocrine hormones?
1.NE & Epinephrine
2.Angiotension II
3.Antidiretic Hormone
4. Atrial natriuretic peptide
NE & Epinephrine
-increase HR and vasoconstriction= greater CO
-adrenal
Angiotension II
-vasoconstriction= increase BP
-kidneys
Antidiretic Hormone
-Retain H2o= increase Blood vol. And rate
-pituitary
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
= decrease BP and volume
-heart
Long-term Blood Pressure Control (renal)
-Kidney controls BV
-Directly filters and reabsorbs water
-Indirectly via hormones
What does perfusion do?
-necessary for delivering O2/nutrients
-remove CO2 and waste
Extrinsic Factors that regulate tissue perfusion
-Outside organs
-SNS→constriction→less BF and maintains BP (hormones can effect)
Intrinsic Factors that Regulate Tissue Perfusion
1.Autoregulation
2.metabolic Factors
3.Endothelial Factors
4.Inflamatory Chemicals
5. Myogenic Control
Autoregulation (Intrinsic Factor)
-perfusion matched to tissue requirements
-Local conditions change in arterial resistance (diameter)
Metabolic Intrinsic Factor
-Decrease in O2, increase K, increase H = decrease pH→ vasodilation
Endothelial Intrinsic Factor
2 Things must be in balance:
A. Nitric Oxide
-Powerful vasodilator
B. Endothelians
-vasoconstrictor
Inflammatory Chemicals (intrinsic Factor)
Chemicals cause Vasodilation of BV’s
Myogenic Controls (intrinsic Factor)
-SM stretched= contracts= less BF
-SM relaxed= increase BF= maintain BF when dialated
How does exercise change blood flow to specific tissues?
-SKM= arterioles dilate (metabolic)
-Less BP → extrinsic SNS increases→ BV constriction → Decrease BV to guts/ kidneys
-Organs:
BRAIN- same
heart= increase (BV dilate)
sKm= increase ( increase more to slow
skin = increase(vasodilation to release heat)
kidneys= decrease (SNS)
Abdomen= decrease (SNS)
other= decrease (SNS)
Describe Capillary Exchange
-Blood brings O2, nutrients, removes CO2 and water
1. Solutes:
-diffusion= net mvmt hi → low→ co2, O2, fat, glucose, ions, ect.
-Active Transport= transcytoses of select lg. -Molecules (proteins)
2. Water: (bulk flow)
-Hydrostatic P.= pressure exerted by fluid on wall
-Push h2o out, Leaves proteins and cells= filtration
-Coloid Osmotic P
-Created by proteins and large molecules
-Pulls water in
Arterial End Pressure Details
-Hydrosti P= 35 mmHg
-Coloid Osmotic P= -25 mmHg (negative= moving in opposite direction)
-Net filtration P= H-C= NF
-NF=10 mmHg= water benign pushed out
Venule End Pressure Details
-HP= 17 mm HG
-COP= -25 mm HG
-NFP= - 88 mm Hg
What are the processes of digestion?
- Ingestion-taking it in
2.Mechanical Breakdown= chewing
3.Propulsion=swallowing and peristalsis
4.Digestion= catabolic enzyme breaks food down
5.Absorption=end products –>blood or lymph
6.Defecation=eliminate indigestible substances
Digestive Processes of Oral Cavity
1.Ingestion
2. Mechanical Breakdown
- mastication
- tongue mixing
-control voluntary and stretch receptors
3.Chemical Digestion
-salivary amylase
- lingual lipase
4. propulsion (deglutition)
-tongue compacts bolus and goes into oropharynx
- nasopharynx blocked by soft palate
-larynx rises, epiglottis covers glottis, and breathing stops
-upper esophagus relaxes
- bolus moved by peristalsis contractions (8 sec.)
-
Esophagus Histology
-Stratified squamous epithelium
-Muscular Externa→skeletal→smooth muscle
Esophagus Role
moves food
Esophagus Digestive Process
- Propulsion-
- moves food from oral cavity in the stomach
- Lubrication from glands in submucosa - Gastroesophageal Sphincter:
-Open when contracts
3.Pyloric Sphincter
-Controls stomach emptying into duodenum
Layers of the Stomach Layers top to bottom
- Fundus
- Body
3.Cardia
Chemical Portion of Stomach Digestion
From Gastric Glands:
1.Parietal Cells
2.Chief Cells
3.Enteroendocrine Cells
Parietal Cells in Stomach
-pumps H+ into lumen
-H+ joins with calcium and HCL
-HCL= 1.35-3.5
-HCL denatures proteins, kills bacteria, activates pepsin
-intrinsic factor and regulates b12 absorption
Chief Cells in Stomach
- lipase
-15% lipolysis
-pepsinogen activated to pepsin by HCL
-protease –> cleave protons into polypeptides
Endocrine Cells in Stomach
-release gastrin
-increase stomach activity
Digestive Process
1.Chyme-
-partially digested carbs, proteins and fats
-In 2-3 hours in pylons
2.Empty w/in 4-6 hours
-Faster=larger meals, liquids, carbs
-Slower=fatty
Histology of the Small Intestines
- Circular Lumen
- Villi
- Microvilli
- Intestinal Crypts
Circular Folds (Small Intestines)
-1 cm tall and focus chyme to spiral thru. Lumen
Villi (Small Intestines)
-1mm projections of mucosa
-Enterocytes→ absorbs nutrients
-Goblet Cells: Secrete Mucus and in epithelial layer
Microvilli (small Intestines)
-Plasma membranes projections= brush border
Intestinal Crypt Types (small Intestines)
1.Enterocytes
2. Enteroendocrine cells
3. Paneth Cells
4. Stem Cells
Enterocytes(small intestines)
Secrete intestinal juices, watery mucos
1-2 L a day
pH: 7.5
Enteroendocrine Cells(small intestines)
-cholecystokinin (CEK) secretion
Paneth Cells(small intestines)
Secrete defensins, lysozyme
Stem Cells(small intestines)
-Divide rapidly, differentiat, and migrate to willis
What causes gastric ulcers?
-Stomach normally protected by a bicarbonate and mucus blanket
-If mucus is broken down→ digest wall is exposed
-H. Pylori can destroy mucus layer
Gastric Ulcer Treatment
- antacids → raise pH and allow time for healing
- Proton Pump–>Inhibits parietal cells from pumping H+
How does vomiting occur?
-AKA Emesis
-Irritation→ message to emeteric center in medulla
Pale, nauseated, salivate,
-Process:
Deep breath
contracting abdominal and diaphragm
GES Relaxes
Soft Palate rises
Stomach content forced up
Mechanical Digestion of Small Intestines
-Propulsion
-segmentation
Chemical Digestion of Small Intestines
-Chyme broken down
-enzyme=Pancreas and bush border
- bile from liver
Absorption Digestion in Small Intestines
-absorbs most nutrient sand water
How long does small intestine digestion take?
3-6 hours
Ileocecal Valve
-of small intestines
-Sphincter→flap
-Closes with pressure
-Prevents backflow
-Normally closed
-Relaxed by gastrolienal reflex
What happens if Chyme is acidic or hypertonic when entering the small intestines?
Acidic- normally
Hypertonic- diahrea
bacteria in Large Intestines Details
1.Lots of goblet cells
- Crypts, no villi
2. Bacteria ⅓ of stool
3.Metabolic Rate
-Fermentation- breakdown undigested food and mucosa
-carbs= gas(CO2, Methane, Hydrogen, Dimethylsulfide [odor]
-500ml/ day
-makes vitamins
-B’s and K
-Keeps bad bacteria in check
-maintains Overall health
Describe haustra contractions and mass movement in Small Intestines
*takes 12-24 hours
1.Haustra Contractions
-Segmentation
-Slow 1-30min
-SM
-As haustra fills and stretch then contract and mixes contents
-Allows for more H2O extraction
-Mass Movement
2. Peristalsis
-Long, slow, powerful → force contents towards rectum
-3-4 times a day
-Gastrolic reflex= food in stomach
3. Absorption
-500ml chyme → 150 ml feces
Pre-defication
- Mass movement→ feces into rectum
2.Feces stretches wall= defecation reflex (PSNS)
3.Rectum contracts; in response and the internal sphincter relaxes - Message to the brain→ decide what to do with the external sphincter
5.Keep external sphincter closed until mass movement
Defecation
1.Rectal wall contracts
2.Contract levator ani
-Lifts anal canal and leave feces outside the body
Metabolic Functions of the Liver
-Process nutrients
-Stores glucose as glycogen
-Amino acids→ makes plasma proteins, Clotting factors, albumin, angiokensiogen
-store fat soluable vitamins
-Makes cholesteral and triglyceriddes
Detoxification Function of the Liver
-Makes molecules inactive→ changes to H2O soluble form
- changes Ammonia →urea
-Drugs and hormones
What does the liver filter
blood= old RBC and bacteria
How does the liver aid in digestion
makes bile salts
Bile Salts
Emulsifies Fats
How is Bile Recycled?
Enterohepatic Circulation:
1. Duodenum
2.Reabs, in ileum
3. Transported to liver by portal blood
4.Re-secreted bile
Bile Qualities
-yellow/green
-alkaline
What does bile Contain?
1.Bile Salts
2.Bile Pigments
3.Cholesteral/Triglycerides
Bile Pigmentation
-from Bilubrin= Hb breakdown
Gall Bladder
-Stores bile in concentration of 20x
-when walls contract–>bile moves into cystic duct
-
Gall Stones
-too much cholesterol or to little bile salts
Pancreatic Digestive Process
-secretes 1500 ml of pancreatic Juice (mostly water)
-Bicarbonate (pH8) is made by duct cells
-Bicarbonate:
-neutralizes chyme
-HCL–>HCO3=blood pH unchanged
-Enzymes made by Acinar Cells
Active form of Enzymes made by Acinar Cells
Trypsin becomes lipase, amylase, and nuclease, but need ions and bile to function properly
Inactive form of Enzymes made by Acinar Cells
-Trypsinogen–>trypsin in duodenum
Main Steps of Digestion Control
1.Cephalic Phase
2.Gastic Phase
3.Intestinal Phase
Cephalic Phase of digestion Steps
- Sense(see, smell, taste)
2.message goes to cortex
3.message to hypothalamus
4.Message to medulla
5.Message from medulla activates PSNS
6.PSNS activation sends an excitatory impulse through the vagus nerve (AKA long reflex)
Gastric Phase of Digestion
(AKA short reflex)
* increase distending and pH b/c of chyme and body senses peptides (starts the process)
1.Gastrin is released–> relaxes ileocecal calve (gastroileal reflex) & mass movement (gastrocolic reflex)
Intestinal Phase of Digestion
- chyme in duodenum (acidic, causes distension, hypertonic)
Fat and Peptides of Chyme is Digested:
-cholecystokinin is released
1.tells gallbladder to contract (digests fat)
2. Pancreas Secretes Enzyme (digests proteins)
3. Relax Hepatic Sphincter (bile gets to chyme)
4.Inhibits stomach activity
Acidity of Chyme in Digestion Causes:
1.activates secretin release
2.release of bicarbonate from the pancreatic duct cells
3. Increase bile production
4.Inhibits stomach activity
Chyme qualities
-made of peptides and fat
-hypertonic
-acidic
What Inhibits the Stomach Digestion and why?
1.Cholecystokinin and Seretin
-protects small intestines from acid
-allows time for digestion and absorption (food would move way to fast)
2. Stress, Fear, and Anxiety
-SNS Response
Catabolic Process in Digestion
-large molecules become monomers via hydrolysis and are also broken down with pancreatic enzymes
How does absorption occur in digestion?
-enterocytes have tight junctions so things don’t easily come through
-molecules are picked up by ATPase carriers and brought through
List Polysaccharides
-glycogen, starch, and cellulose
How do Polysaccharides (carbs) turn into disaccharides
-Salivary and pancreatic amylase
What are some disaccharides?
-sucrose
-lactose
-maltose
How do disaccharides b/cm monosaccharides?
-via brush border enzyme
How are Monosaccharides absorbed?
-they are actively transported across enterocyte cell membrane
-then absorbed by capillary blood stream via diffusion
What are some monosaccharides?
-glucose, galactose, and fructose
How is Protein digested?
-amino acids are sloughed off and disintegrated by mucosal cells and GI Enzymes
-In the Stomach:
1. HCL denatures protein= unfold
2. Pepsinogen b/cms pepsin and cleaves proteins into polypeptides
-In Small Intestine:
1.Protease= breaks polypeptides into smaller polypeptides
2.Brush Border Enzymes Carboxypeptidase and Amino Peptidase= cleave amino acids
3.Active Transport across Enterocytes
4.Absorbed into capillaries via diffusion
How is Nucleic Acids Digested?
- Pancrease secretes nuclease and breaks them down into nucleotides
- Brush border Enzymes in SI breaks the nucelotides into: nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate ions
- Actively transported across enterocytes and enters capillaries via diffusion
How are lipids digested?
1.Lingual lipase breaks down lipids in oral cavity and stomach
2. Chyme:
-have a tryglercide exterioir
-bile salts have a polar and nonpolar end
-the polar end repels bile salts and sttracts the water
-the nonpolar end binds with the fats
- this turns big blobs into little blobs
3.Pancreas
-releases lipase and break triglyceride down into a micelle (1 Monoglyceride and 2 fatty acids)
4.Enterocyte
-micelles transport into enterocytes
-Smooth ER converts micelles into triglycerides with a protein skin = chylomicron
5. Lymphatic System
- chylomicrons enter lacteal ducts of the lymphatic system
-travel to thoracic duct and empties into the left subclavian where it is broken down into lipoprotein lipase breaks it down so it can be absorbed by tissues
How much of everything do we secrete a day?
Consume 9 L. of this Secretions are:
Saliva= 1L
Gastric Juices= 3L
small intestine=2 L
What does the Jejunum Absorb?
Na,K,Ca,Cl,Fe, Vitamins, H2O
What does the Ileum Absorb?
Bile salts, B12, H2O and salts
How does 500ml of chyme become 150ml of stool
-extraction of salt, H20, and vit. K
What happens to our digestion as we age?
-Decrease PSNS Activity
-Poor absorption
-decrease smell and taste
Why do we need nutrients?
Build cell structure
Replace old and worn out structures
Synthesizes functional molecules
ATP
macronutrients
carbs, fats, and proteins
micronutrients
vits, and minerals
What percent of food volume is water?
60%
Carb Sources
-Sugars →Fruit and milk
-Polysaccharides= starch
Carb Uses
Uses → all converted to glucose and becomes ATP,
Glycogen, and Fat
Carb Requirements
-100g aka 50%
-complex carbs are best
-300g in a 2000 cal diet
Sources of Fat
saturated= animals,
unsaturated=plants
Fat Uses
cushion, insulates, calorie storage, absorb fat soluble vitamins, plasma membrane stabilization
Fat Requirements
-65 g/day
-30% of diet (excess is stored as fat)
Protein Sources
incomplete= nuts, legumes, cereal
complete= eggs, fish, meat (animal)
Protein Uses
-Structural & functional proteins
Not stored, need all amino acids or can’t make protein
Protein Requirements
50g/day
20% of calories a day
Water Soluable Vitamin Info
B, C
Some stored, excess in urine
B function as coenzyme in glucose oxidation
antioxidants= A,C,E
Fat Soluable Vitamins
Ingested with lipids
Stored in liver
Toxic if accumulated
Vit. D= calcium metabolism
Vit K=blood clotting
Minerals Needed in moderate amount
-ca,mg,phos for bone health
-K, Na, Cl= electrolytes
-sulfur=to make some amino acids
Minerals Needed in Trace Amts.
Iron for hemoglobin
Iodine for Thyroid hormone
Sources of Minerals
Sources; Vegies, legumes, milk
Metabolism
sum of all biochemical reactions in the body
Anabolism
make bigger molecules from smaller ones
Catabolism
breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
Cellular Respiration
take energy in chemical bonds for food and store as ATP for cell use
gluconeogenesis
creation of glucose from non carbs
All we need to know about Cellular Respiration
-Makes 2 CO2 molecules =exhale
-Makes 8 hydrogen ions combine with oxygen we inhale to make water= oxidative phosphorylation
-Oxidative phosphorylation= 28 molecules of ATP
-1 molecule of glucose= 30 molecules of ATP
-686 kcal= 262kcal of heat
-38% efficient
3 metabolic state
1.Steady State
2.Absorbative State
3. Post absorptive State
Steady State of Metabolism
-dynamic breakdown and rebuilding of molecules
-Nutrient Pools:
1.Amino Acids-short term energy b/cms ATP or Fat
2.Carbs- ATP, excess in liver and muscles
3.Fat-ATp, excess stored in adipose cells and muscles
Absorptive State
eating +3 hours→ food absorbed and burned or stored/ controlled by insulin
Post Absorptive
-GI empty, using body reserves
-Fasting state
-need to maintain blood glucose levels:
A. Break down glycogen for the brain
B. Triglyceride → glycerol → glucose and into Fatty acids → ATP
C. Break down cell protein → glucose
-Prolonged fast catabolizes muscles –>Dies when heart is to weak
-Controlled by glucagon
How is food intake regulated?
Brain:
-Hypotahlamus = hunger center
-GI Stretch = decrease appetite
-Glucose in blood= decrease
-Fat in blood=decrease
-Increase hunger=Glucagen, epinephrine
-Junk Food → depress
-Stress→ increase or decrease
-Temp increase= appetite decrease
-Lack of Sleep= increase or decrease appetite
-Leptin(tells how much fat is stored)=
What does lymph system do?
-returns leaked fluid to vascular system
What is the Lymph System Made of?
1.Lymph Vessels=Transport
2.Lymph=fluid in vessels
3.Lymph Nodes=cleanses lymph
What are lymph cells
-lymphocytes and macrophages
What is in Lymph Tissue?
houses lymph cells
What are the lymph organs?
1.Spleen
2.Thymus
3.Tonsil
4.Nodes
Lymph Capillaries
-Capillaries everywhere, but teeth and bone tissue
-Blind end, very permeable
-Made of endothelial cells that overlap slightly= mini valves
-Anchored by collagen (can’t collapse)
-Open w/ pressure→ picks up: fluid, protein, lymphocytes, pathogen, debris, and cancer cells
-Fluid goes into lymph nodes
Where is lymph fluid picked up?
Subclavian
What do lymph nodes do?
-cleanse debris
-examined by immune system
GI Tract Lymph???
Describe Lymph Flow
- Lymph Capillaries
- collecting vessels
3.Lymphoid Trunks
4.Lymphoid Ducts
Right Lymph Duct–>flow of right upper half up to right subclavian duct
Thoracic Duct –> rest of the body including left subclavian
Lymphocytes
-Main immune system warriors
-Originate in bone marrow
-exists in reticular CT
Types:
-T cells
-B Cells
T Cells
Attack infected cells, manage immune responses
B Cells
-protect body from an antigen
-Become plasma cell and make antibodies
Macrophages
-Everywhere
-Phagolytic cell (activates T cell)
Dendritic Cells
Barriers: skin, Gi, Resperiratory tract
Phagolytic Cell
How is lymph moved?
1.Valves
2.Muscle Pumps
3.Respiratory Pumps
4.Artery Pumps -vessels in CT sheath w/ artery pulse
5.smooth muscle of tunica media
Reticular Cells
make reticular CT
Lymphatic Cells
1.Lymphocytes
2.Macrophages
3.Dendritic Cells
4.Reticular Cells
2 Types of Lymphoid Tissue
1.Diffuse
2.Lymphoid Follicles
Diffuse Lymphoid Tissue Location
almost everywhere
Lymphoid Follicles
-sphere of tightly packed lymphocytes
-germinal center=b cells dividing
-T cells in transit
2 Main Types of Lymph Organs
1.Primary
-Where B and T cells Mature
-B= Bone marrow
-T=Thymus
2.Secondary
-where lymphocytes encounter antigen and are activated
Lymph Nodes
-Cleanse lymph→debris microorganisms, filtered several times
-Immune system surveillance
-Lymphocytes monitor for antigen= mount attack
-Dendritic cells use Antigen and activated T cells
-100’s of clusters
Lymph Organs Listed
1.Lymph Nodules (MALT)
2.Tonsils
3.Thymus
4.Spleen
5.Peters Patch
6.Appenix
Lymph Nodules (MALT)
-(Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue)
-in mucous membrane
- no capsule surrounding
Tonsils
-protecting ring around pharynx removes and responds to pathogen
-Types:
1.Palatine-the tonsils
2.Lingual- base of the tongue
3.Pharyngeal- nasopharynx
4.Tubal-Opening of pharyngotympanic tubes
Thymus
-Important in early life
-part of endocrine and lymphatic system
-t lymphocytes mature and become immunocompetent
Peyer Patch
-in ileum
-deal w/ intestinal bacteria
Appendix
-lots of lymph follicles
-prevents bacteria from breeching wall
Spleen
-function=lymphocyte proliferation
-immune surveillance of blood
- removes old RBCs, platelets, debris pathogens
-stores iron from RBCs
-stores platelets and monocytes
-has white and red pulp
White Pulp
-clusters of lymphocytes
-immune surveillance
Red Pulp
-lots of macrophages
-worn out RBCs destroyed
-Dispose of Pathogens
List Main Components of the Innate Defense
1.Skin barriers
-skin
-mucous membrane
2.Internal Defenses
-Phagocytes
-NK Cells
-Inflammation
-antimicrobial proteins
-Fever
How does Skin act as an innate defense?
-Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
-Resists:
1. Weak acids and bases
2. Bacteria and their enzymes
3. toxins
How does mucous membrane act as an innate defense?
-Line body cavities that open to exterior of body
-Cilia hair
How do Phagocytes act as an innate internal defense?
-ID enemy and adhere to it
-Opsonization=Pathogen coated with complement or antibodies
-Engulf and form phagosomes
-Lysosome fuses → phagylosysome
-Kills prey w/ :
1.Acids, enzymes
2.Free radicals
3.Oxidizing chemicals
4.Pierce membranes w/ defensins
How do NK Cells act as innate internal defense?
-Large granular lymphocytes
-Detect lack of “self” surface proteins on cells
-Then kill non-self cells by inducing apoptosis
ex. Cancer cells and virus infected cells
-Secrete chemicals that enhance inflammation
How does inflammation act as an innate internal defense?
-Responds to tissue injury (Trauma, heat, chemicals, infection)
-Prevents spread of damaging agents
-Dispose of pathogens and debris
-Alert adaptive immune system
-Sets stage for repair
What are the inflammation chemicals and what do they do?
Types:
1. Histamine=mast cells
2. Kinins= neutrophils
3.Prostaglandins= leukocytes
Causes:
1. Dilation of arterioles for increased blood flow
2. Increased capillary permeability by:
-by leaking exudate (protein rich fluid)
- by clotting proteins that wall off area, creates and repair scaffolding
-attracting leukocytes
How do Antimicrobial Protein act as an innate internal defense?
-Virus Infects a cell →makes interferons
-Interferons:
1. Stop protein synthesis
2. Degrade viral RNA
How does a fever act as an innate internal defense?
1.Systemic response to microorganism invasion
-Pyrogen increase hypothalamic temperature set point
–>Endogenous: from WBCs
–>Exogenous: from microorganisms
2.High temperature is dangerous
-Denatures Proteins
3. Mild-moderate fever
-Inhibits bacterial multiplication
-Increases metabolic rate to speed repair
What is the role of adaptive defense?
-Protect from invaders and abnormal body cells:
A. Amplify inflammation and activate complement
B. If fail= cancer, aids
What are the two arms of adaptive defense?
1.Humoral
2.Cellular Immunity
Details about Humoral arm of adaptive defense
-B lymphocytes activated → plasma cells →secrete antibody
-In blood= lymph
=Bind to and inactivate intruder and mark it for destruction
-Also has extracellullar targets: Toxins viruses bacteria
Details of Cellular Immunity
-Target infected cells, cancer, foreign cells
-T-Lymphocytes
-Kill directly or indirectly by enhancing inflammation
What are the four characteristics of adaptive defense?
1.Involves B & T Lymphocytes
2.Specific → recognizes and targets and identified invader
3.Systemic→ not at site of infection
4.Memory→second response is faster
What is an Antigen?
-stands for antibody generating
-Anything that triggers our adaptive defense
-Antibodys bind to specific antigens
-Large/ complex molecules= complete
Hapten
-antibody incomplete link w/ body protein
-both combined= antigen
-Ex. poison oak →oil links w/ collagen
Self Antigens
-Major Histocompatibility Complex
-Protein on Surface of Cells
-Tells WBC self vs. nonself
-Millions of combinations
What are antibodies?
When a B cells sees an antigen and makes antibody
Antibody structure
-Immunoglobulin (Ig) (5classes
-2 identical heavy chains
-2 identical light chains
-Variable region =bind to antibody
-Constant Region=determines class and function
What is an antigen presenting cell?
-Engulf the antigen and present the fragments to T cells
-T cells activate T Lymphocytes
-Several Types of APC Cells:
1.Dendritic
2.Macrophages
3.B Lymphocytes
Dendritic APC Cells
-Skin, CT
-Catch antigens and move to node to prevent it
macrophage APC Cells
-Present to T cells to activate macrophages
B Lymphocytes
-Only present to T helper cells in order to be activated
5 Antibody Classes:
IG:
1.M
2. A
3.D
4.G
5.E
IgM
-Monomer or pentamer
-Serum: 10%
-Largest
-Location: Mode 1 on B cell surface
-Function:
1. Agglutination
2. Activate compliment
IgA
-Dimer
-Serum: 10%
-Location: Body Secretions
-Function:
1.Stop pathogens from attaching to epithelium
IgD
Monomer
Serum: Trace
Location: On B cell surface
Function:
B cell antigen receptor
IgG
-Monomer
-Serum: 80%
-Smallest
-Location:
-2nd cross placenta
-Function:
1. activates , compliments, and protects from bacteria and toxins
2. Provides immunity for fetus
IgE
-Monomer
-Serum: Trace
-Location: secreted by skin and GI tract
-Functions:
1. Basophils and mast cells
2. Release histamine → allergies
How do Antigens Destroy Intruders?
- Neutralization
2.Agglutination
3.Precipitation
4.Lysis
Neutralization
Simplest
Bind antigen, block sites, inactivates viruses, toxins
phagocytized
Agglutination
-Cross-linked w/cells clumps
-RBC
-phagocytized
Precipitation
Cross linked w/ soluble molecules
phagocytized
Lysis
By activation of compliment
Cells of adaptive Immune system
-Lymphocytes
-B cells=humoral
-T cells=cell mediated
-Origens: Bone Marrow
-T matures in thymus and B in bone marrow
What do B and T cells need in thymus and bone marrow to graduate?
1.Need to be able to recognize self MHC(protein)
2.Tolerate self antigen
3.Recognize specific antigens
-2% graduate→apoptosis
-Genes determine their receptors and there are billions of receptor kinds and lymphocytes can only have 1 receptor
What is an antigen presenting cell?
Engulf the antigen and present the fragments to T cells
What are the types of Antigen Presenting cells? (APC)
1.Dendritic
-Skin, CT
-Catch antigens and move to node to prevent it
2.Macrophages
-Present to T cells to activate macrophages
3.B Lymphocytes
-Only present to T helper cells in order to be activated
Humoral Immune Response
-Antigen binds to B cell IgD receptor and activates it
-It proliferates and forms clone, cells that differentiate into Plasma cells and memory cells
Plasma cells (in humoral response)
-Make antibodies
-Make 2000 molecules per second
-Does this over 4-5 days
memory Cells (in humoral response)
A. 1st exposure
-Lag of 3-6 days in antibody production
-Peak antibody response @ 10 days
-Plasma secrete antibody
B. 2nd exposure
-Re Exposed to same antigen
-Makes a faster, longer, and more effective response
-Increases antibody levels in 2-3 days
-More plasma cells secrete antibody
Active Humoral Immunity
-B cell encounters the antigen and has to make antibody stored in memory cell
-Allows for long term protection
-Natural= viral or bacteria infection
-Artificial= vaccine →weakened of deadened pathogen
Passive Humoral Immunity
-Given antibody, B cells are not challenged= no memory
-Natural: From Mom
1. Fetis gets IgG across placenta
2. Baby gets Antibodies from mom’s milk
-Artificial
1. Gamma Globulin shot
2. antivenom= snake
3. antitoxins= rabies, tetanus, botulism
4. Hepatitis protection
Describe the cellular immune response
-Infected cells, cancer cells, foreign cells
-T cells respond
-2 Types of T Cells:
1.CD4
2.CD8
-Also, involves Major Histocompatibility (MHC) Proteins which have 2 classes
CD4 T cell
-T helper cells
-Activate B cells, T cells, macrophages
-(T4,Th) direct immune response
-T regulatory= moderate immune system
CD8 T Cell
-Cytotoxic T cells
(T8,Tc)
-Destroy cells displaying its antigen
Class 1 of Histocompatibility Proteins
-Endogenous, a cells except RBC
-8-9 aa bits of protein →if abnormal→ infected, cancerous→ sounds alarm
-Needed to activate CD8 cells
Class 2 of histocompatibility Proteins
-Only on APC surface
-Display debris of phagosomes
-Activate CD4 cells
Types of T Cell Activation
-Can’t see antigen
-Need antigen processed and presented by APC
- T cells Bind and recognizes
-Self MHC
-I belong to me or absent= attack me
-Antigen= Foreign invader → attack anything w/ Ag help me attack this
2.Activates and Divides
-b/cm Memory cells
-Clone Active cells→ release cytokines→ die 7-30 days
- Cytokines
-aka Interlukins
-WBCs used to talk to other WBCs
-Proliferate
-Activate
-Come down
The first step of immune response war plan
-exposed to antigen
-adaptive and innate branch off
Adaptive Immune Response’s to branches in war plan
- Cellular
- Humoral
Cellular adaptive response in war plan
-dendritic cells engulf antigen
-APC presents it’s MHC antigen complex
-APC branches into 2 types:
- CD8
-Clone and make memory cells and a cytotoxic T cells
-Cytotoxic T Cell attack and destroy cells w/ antigen
2.CD4
-Clones and make memory cells and T helper Cells
-T Helper cells can:
A. Activate CD8 Cells
B. Activate B Cells
C. Turn on macrophages
D.Turn on NK Cells
T Cells activates other cells by stimulating Cytokins
Also has T Regulatory Cells
Has inhibitory cytokines
Turn of Cytotoxic T Cells
T Helper Cells
B Cells
What do T helper cells do?
-they can
A. Activate CD8 Cells
B. Activate B Cells
C. Turn on macrophages
D. Turn on NK Cells
-T Cells activates other cells by stimulating Cytokins
-Also has T Regulatory Cells
A. Has inhibitory cytokines
B. Turn of Cytotoxic T Cells
C. T Helper Cells
D. B Cells
Humoral branch of adaptive immunity
-B cell IgD receptors bind to antigen and activates
-B Cell then clones itself and makes a memory cell for next time and a plasma cell
-Plasma cells secrete antibody
P=precipitate
L-Lysis by activation of the complement
A= agglutination
N=neutralization
Innate Immunity in war plan
2 branches:
1. External Defense
-Surface barrier, skin, muscles
2.Internal defense
-Inflammation
-NK
-Fever
-Phagocytes
-Lysozyme
-Proteins-interferon
-Complement
What does the Pyloric Atrium do?
anatomic region of the stomach that pummels and mixses food with juices to form chyme
Some causes of Edema
-increased hydrostatic pressure
-decreased coloid pressure
-blocked lymphatic drainage
What happens to MAP when end diastolic volume decreases?
-Decreases
-BV SV= EDV-ESV
The teeth that tear food are what?
canine
Some roles of the liver
-filters blood to remove bacteria
-detoxify toxic chemicals
-processes nutrients you eat
What do Parietal cells do in the gastric gland?
-pump protons (hydrogen ions) into lumen
-make intrinsic factor
Gastrocolic reflex
-when food enters stomach, mass movements begin in the colon in response
Endothelians do what?
-vasoconstrict
what leads to diahrea?
-hypertonic or alkaline chyme
What do pancreatic duct cells do?
-secrete bicarbonate to neutralize chyme
Eneric bacteria in the large intestines synthesize what?
vitamin K
cholecystokinine (CEK)
-causes gall bladder contractions
what are plasma membrane projections?
microvilli
an enzyme released from brush border
lactase
Characteristics of adaptive immunity
-has memory
-systemic
-specific
Some defensive mechanisms used by antibodies
1.agglutination
2.precipitation
3.Neutralization
Histamine is release when antibodies by with this antigen
IgM
Diapedesis
process of neutrophil squeezing through capillary wall
What organ does immune surveillance of the blood?
-spleen
Some parts of the innate body defense?
-phagocytosis
-antibodies
-inflammation
-lysozyme
