A&P Exam 1 Flashcards
Anatomy refers to
internal and external structures of the body and their physical relationships
Physiology refers to
study of the functions of those structures
maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions
homeostasis
a disruptions in homeostasis results in disease
homeostatic imbalance
homeostasis is the dynamic state of _____.
equilibrium
Two main controlling systems
nervous and endocrine
Sweating is an example of homeostasis as it helps
regulate our body temperature. When our core temperature rises, we start to sweat. The evaporation of this sweat cools the body down, thereby lowering the elevated temperature.
Shivering is an example of homeostasis as it helps
induces contraction in our muscles that produce shivering. Shivering generates body heat and increases our body temperature. This increase in body temperature restores homeostasis.
Negative feedback
shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
examples of negative feedback
- household thermostat
- sweating and shivering
Positive feedback
Increases the original stimulus to push the variable further
examples of positive feedback
- childbirth
- blood clotting
superior
toward the head; above
inferior
away from the head; below
anterior/ ventral
toward the front of the body
posterior/ dorsal
toward the back of the body
medial
toward the midline
lateral
away from the midline
intermediate
between a more medial and more lateral structure
example: eyes
proximal
closer to the point of attachment
distal
farther from the point of attachment
superficial
toward the body’s surface
deep
away from the body’s surface
midsagittal/median plane
body split between the eyes
frontal plane
body split in half with boobs in front butt in back/cut at ears
transverse plane
body split top and bottom
After eating 5 glazed donuts, your pancreas release _____ causing glucose levels to _____.
insulin, decrease
The knee is _____ to the thigh
distal/inferior
This region of the body is superficial to the heart, superior to the pelvis, and posterior to the ribs?
lungs
NOT an example of homeostasis
skin cut leading to continuous bleeding
3 general parts of a typical cell
nucleus
cytoplasm
plasma membrane
What is an organelle?
- perform specific jobs
- specialized cellular compartments
cells are the _____ and _____ unit of living organisms.
structural, functional
is like city hall, orders everyone around, contains DNA
nucleus
helps in the formation of proteins
ribosomes
produce ATP for the cell, vary in number depending on the cell, energy factories, contain their own DNA
mitochondria
covered with ribosomes, secreted proteins are made here
rough endoplasmic reticulum
no ribosomes, does not make proteins, metabolizes lipids & cholesterol, makes LIPIDS
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
“Traffic director” for proteins
made from rough ER. Transport, sorting and modification of both protein and lipid
Golgi apparatus
“Demolition crew”, destroys invading bacteria
lysosomes
specialized for carrying out oxidative reactions using molecular oxygen
peroxisomes
do RBC have a nucleus
no
why can’t we survive off of drinking sea water?
seawater has a higher osmotic pressure than most of the fluids in your body. You can drink the water, but ingesting it will pull water out of your cells as osmosis works to dilute the seawater.
solvent pass from a solution of low concentration to a solution of high concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
osmosis
Isotonic solution
same concentration of solutes as the cell; cell stays the same
Hypertonic solution
higher concentration of solutes compared to cell; shrinks and shrivels
Hypotonic solution
lower concentration of solutes compared to cell; swelling and grows
groups of cells that are similar in
structure and have a similar function
tissue
cells that are part of an immune system
lysosomes
a cell that secretes a lot of hormones
endocrine
skeletal muscle cells
responsible for practically all movements that are under voluntary control
what tonicity do you think sports drinks have? Why?
hypotonic to help with water retention
heart cells contain cell junctions that allow them to contract synchronously. What type of junctions do you think these are?
gap junctions
vascularized
tissue that has blood vessels
- blood = fast healing
innervated
tissue that has nerves in it
also contributes to faster healing
- blood = fast healing
What are two ways in which tissue is repaired?
regeneration-same tissue replaced
fibrosis-scar tissue
epithelial tissue
cover and protect
-foundon the surface of the skin and lining the digestive tract and organs
simple epithelium
-one layer
-not good for protection
-good for exchange with the environment
-found in the lungs and intestines
cuboidal
Round nucleus
Found in cells that excrete
e.g. ducts
stratified epithelium
-two or more layers
-good for protection
-found in the skin surface and lining of the mouth
squamous
squished nucleus
lungs
Great for exchange
columnar
Oval nucleus
Found in cells that
absorb
three properties that distinguish epithelium from other tissues?
- Epithelial tissue covers surfaces with an uninterrupted layer of cells.
- Epithelial cells are attached to each other.
- Intercellular spaces in the epithelium are small.
secrete onto the body
surface or into body cavities
e.g. mucous glands, sweat glands,
liver (bile)
exocrine glands
make hormones
that enter extracellular space through blood
e.g. pancreas, testes, ovaries
endocrine glands
endocrine vs exocrine
exocrine glands secrete substances into a ductal system to an epithelial surface, endocrine glands secrete products directly into the bloodstream
connective tissue
support
Unlike other primary tissues, the connective tissue is
largely ____________called the extracellular matrix
non-living matter
- well supplied by blood vessels
bone
make organic part of the matrix
osteoblasts
mature bone cells
osteocytes
- Holds up to tension and compression
- Tough but flexible
- Lack nerves
- Not vascularized , nutrients received by diffusion from
blood vessels - Up to 80% H2O
cartilage
types of cartilage
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
Strong, ropelike structures
reinforced with collagen fibers
Poor blood supply
dense CT
Fewer fibers, looser
Can be vascularized
loose CT
Atypical connective tissue
* fluid matrix
Blood cells = red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
blood
general function of CT
- protection
- binding and support
- insulation/storing reserve fuel
- transporting substances within the body
How is connective tissue different from other tissues?
an abundance of intercellular matrix with relatively few cells
- Well vascularized
- Highly cellular
- Myofilaments
- Elaborate versions of actin and myosin → movement
muscle
voluntary muscle
skeletal
involuntary muscle
smooth and cardiac
epidermis
- epithelial cells
- outermost region
- nutrients by diffusion
dermis
- most of the skin
- tough and leathery
- vascularized
hypodermis
-Not actually skin
-Mostly ADIPOSE tissue
-Anchors skin to underlying structures (muscles)
-Shock absorber and heat insulator
- Most of the cells in the epidermis
- Make keratin – a protein that protects the skin
- Cells divide a lot, pushed upward
with time - Top layer is dead
Callus
Keratinocytes
- Make melanin, transferred to keratinocytes
- Protects the nucleus
Melanocytes
- Ingest foreign substances
- Part of the immune system
Dendritic cells
- The number varies in
your body - Regions that have
more will be more
sensitive - Two-point
threshold (Lab) - Sensory receptors for touch
tactile cells
How can the integumentary system regulate your body temperature
- sweat glands- sweat glands get bigger/dilate and cause sweating
-vessel constriction- pushes blood to the deeper regions of the body/conserves body heat
torn dermis
stretch marks
fluid-filled pocket between epidermal and
dermal layer
blister
loss of collagen and elastic fibers
wrinkles
_____ are caused by a lack of oxygen to the skin
Too much pressure restricts blood flow and cells die
bed sores
- yellowish skin
- liver pigments accumulate in blood
rather than bile
jaundice
- blood escapes from blood vessels and clots
- AKA hematoma (“blood swelling”)
bruises
poorly oxygenated blood
cyanosis
integumentary system: chemical
secretions lower pH
integumentary system: physical
- continuity of skin
- hardness of keratinized cells
- layers of dead skin
- glycolipids = water-resistant
integumentary system: biological
- dendritic cells
- macrophages: “large eaters”
- Immune system
cancers: Squamous cell carcinoma
- keratinocytes become
cancerous - Grow fast; can
metastasize if not caught
cancers: melanoma
- Melanocytes become
cancerous - Most Dangerous
- Highly metastatic
ABC’s of cancer detection
A- symmetry
B- order irregularity
C- olor; look for multiple
1st degree burns
- Only the epidermis
- Heals in 2-3 days
- e.g. sunburn
2nd degree burns
- epidermis and upper region of the dermis
- Little scarring; 3-4 weeks to heal
- e.g. blisters
3rd degree burns
- entire thickness of skin
- Nerve endings destroyed;
supposedly not as painful - Healing: long time; skin grafting
advised
What are some functions of bones?
support, protecting, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation
axial skeleton
skull, ribcage, spine, and tailbone.
SUPPORT
appendicular skeleton
the rest
APPENDAGES
MOVEMENT
long bone
yellow bone marrow
fat storage
short bone
cube-shaped
flat bone
have sandwich structure
irregular bone
have sandwich structure
osteoblast
bone growth/make new bone
osteocyte
maintains bone matrix/lives in the lacuane
osteoclast
bone-resorbing/destroys old bone
how do bones get longer
epiphyseal plates
endochondral ossification (bone growth)
bone collar forms
calcification
blood vessel invades
spongy bone forms
diaphysis elongates
epiphysis ossifies
a little bit of cartilage remains
What is the importance of an epiphyseal plate?
main site of longitudinal growth of the long bones.
synthesis of the typical extracellular matrix
when epiphyseal plates are present
only found in children and adolescents
when epiphyseal lines are present
in adults, who have stopped growing
Which three hormones are important for bone maintenance during a person’s life?
growth hormone
testosterone and estrogen
parathyroid hormone
osteomalacia
- insufficient calcium
- soft bones
- epiphyseal plates cannot calcify, and become wider
- IN ADULTS
rickets
- insufficient calcium
- soft bones
- epiphyseal plates cannot calcify, and become wider
- IN CHILDREN
osteoporosis
- more osteoclast (bone-reabsorbing) activity rises due to an increase in osteoblast (bone growth) activity.
- Insufficient exercise that stresses bone.
-poor diet - hormone-related conditions
-genetic disposition
what else is calcium used for in the body?
muscle communication
Paget’s disease
- haphazard/disorganized deposit and reabsorption.
- more spongy bone than compact bone
what type of cartilage is located at the end of long bones that help connect to other bones?
articular
_____ are tiny canals that help ensure compact bone receives nourishment
canaliculi
inversion
turning foot towards the midline
eversion
turning foot away from the midline
supination
palm up like holding a bowl of soup; radius and ulna are parallel
pronation
palm down; opposite of supination
you are raising your hand to wave to a friend. Which movement is this?
adduction
bringing two bones together and decreasing the angle of a joint is called _____
flexion
looking up at the ceiling would be _____of your neck
hyperextension
which of these joints can you hyperextend
shoulder
standing on your toes is which motion?
plantar flexion
standing on your heels?
dorsiflexion
endochondral ossification _____
requires a blood supply
Main function of the skeletal system
blood cell formation
support
Which is true about trabeculae bones?
their open structures help dispense nutrients.- found in spongy bone
kyphosis results in the rounded appearance in the _____
upper dorsum
do infant skeletons contain fewer bones than adults?
NO they have the same amount
an osteocyte resides in the ____
lacuna
LOOK AT PICS OF CELLS; SQUAMOUS, CUBOIDAL, COLUMNAR
t/f fibrosis is a superior healing process compared to regeneration
false; fibrosis makes scar tissue and you lose function
types of connective tissue
blood, bone, cartilage, dense ct, loose ct
order of skin layers top to botton
epidermis
dermis
hypodermis
t/f the hypodermis is NOT considered part of the skin
true
shivering on a cold day and sweating on a how day is an example of which type of mechanism to regulate body temperature
negative feedback
thicker cells in the lungs will cause breathing to be ____
more difficult
sweat is secreted onto the skin surface by _____
exocrine gland
drinking salt water would cause ____
cells to shrink in size/hypertonic
osmosis is the movement of
water across a semi-permeable surface
functions of the integumentary system
boundary from the environment
regulate body temp
prevent bacterial growth on skin
integumentary system and its protective function
skin serves as a continuous physical barrier
tactile cells _____
allow us to sense touch
which accurately describes the hypodermis
it contains many fat cells
the femur is part of the _____ skelton
appendicular
the _____ plane will cut the human body into top and bottom parts
transverse
peroxisomes _____
neutralize oxygen radicals
which is true about connective tissue
it contains more ground substance than other tissues
this tissue type is used for communication
nervous
nutrients move through compact bone through tiny pathways called
canaliculi
acromegaly is caused by an excess _____ in _____
growth hormone; adults
this disease is characterized by random formation of spongy bone throughout the skeleton
paget’s disease
a herniated disc can be especially _____ because _____
painful;it presses on a nerve root
order the vertebrae from smallest to largest in size
cervical-thoiracic-lumbar
examples of a homeostatic imbalance
asthma-airways too narrow
cancer-excess cell growth
pneumonia-fluid in lungs
the fingers are ____ to the elbow
distal
which of these is a general part of every cell
plasma membrane
which organelle makes protein
rough er
ATP is made in the _____
mitochondrial
which of these is an example of tissue?
group of cardiac cells
heart
cardiac cell
cardiovascular system
group of cardiac cells
what is true about a cell that is vascularized
it has a blood supply
which of these tissues repairs the best
epithelium
t/f after an injury the process of regeneration creates scar tissue
false; fibrosis
in anatomy the word ‘articulate’ means
connect
this connective tissue has a fluid extracellular matrix
blood
voluntary muscle, like those used for raising your hand, require _____ muscle
skeletal
what is always true of epithelium that has two layers of cells
it is stratifies tissue
areas that need protection against friction and rubbing would be best protected by _____
stratifies
what is special about epithelium
it can regenerate
which layers of the skin are vascularized
dermis only
melanocytes are important for
protecting the nucleus from UV damage
when it is cold outside, the blood vessels in your fingers _____
constrict
stretch marks are caused by _____
torn dermis
bed sores are caused by _____ to the skin
too little blood
a third degree burn destroys
all of the epidermis, dermis, and part of the hypodermis
which is not a function of the skeletal system.
movement
storing excess DNA
storing minerals
support
storing excess DNA
the hyoid bone is the only bone in the body that _____
does not articulate with any other bone
sutures are _____
joints located between skull bones
how many cervical vertebrae are found in the human body
7
ligaments connect
bones to other bones
pregnancy is most likely to cause which spinal condition
lordosis
the heart is ____ to the lungs
deep
simple epithelium is good for _____
exchange
t/f the ph of human skin is neutral (7.0) which is perfect for preventing bacterial growth
false
cuboidal cells have _____
round nucleus
