A&P 1 - TEST 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Anatomy
A
studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
2
Q
Gross Anatomy
A
The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
3
Q
Regional Anatomy
A
All structures in a particular region of the body are examined at the same time
4
Q
Systemic Anatomy
A
Anatomical studies system by system
5
Q
Surface Anatomy
A
Study of the internal structures as the relate to the overlying skin
6
Q
Microscopic Anatomy
A
Study of structures too small to see with the naked eye
7
Q
What are the two types of microscopic anatomy?
A
- Cytology - study of cells of the body
2. Histology - study of tissues of the body
8
Q
Developmental Anatomy
A
Study of structural changes that occur in the body throughout the lifespan
9
Q
Physiology
A
Function of the body, how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities
10
Q
Physiology focuses on…….
A
Events at a cellular or molecular level
11
Q
What are the 3 subdivisions of physiology?
A
- Renal
- Neurophysiology
- Cardiovascular
12
Q
What is the principle of complementary structure and function?
A
function always reflects structure. what a structure can do depends on its specific form. Example: blood flows in one direction through the heart bc the heart has valves that prevent back flow
13
Q
SA Node
A
sets the pace of the heart
14
Q
6 Levels of Structural Organization
A
- Chemical Level
- Cellular
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ system
- Organismal Level
15
Q
Chemical Level
A
simplest level of structural hierarchy
16
Q
3 branches of the chemical level
A
- Atoms
- Molecules
- Organelles
17
Q
Cells
A
Smallest unit of living things
18
Q
Tissue
A
groups of similar cells that have a common function
19
Q
4 Types of tissues
A
- Epithelium - covers body surfaces & lines cavities
- Muscle - provides movement
- Connective Tissue - protects organs
- Nervous Tissue - provides a means of communication by transmitting electrical impulses
20
Q
Organ Level
A
Discrete structure composed of at least 2 tissue types that perform a specific function for the body
21
Q
Organ System
A
Organs working together to accomplish a common purpose
22
Q
Organismal Level
A
represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to promote life (made up of organ systems)
23
Q
8 Necessary Life Functions
A
- Maintaining Boundaries - keeps internal separate from external (skin)
- Movement - promoted by muscular system
- Responsiveness - ability to sense changes in environment and respond
- Digestion - breaking down food to be absorbed into the blood
- Metabolism - broad term for all reactions that occur in body cells
- Excretion - removing waste
- Reproduction
- Growth
24
Q
2 Types of Metabolism
A
- Catabolism - breaking down
2. Anabolism - (building up) synthesizing complex cellular structures from simpler substances
25
5 Survival Needs
1. Nutrients - for energy & cell building
2. Oxygen - required for most chemical reactions
3. Water - 60 -80% of body weight
4. Normal Body Temp - below 98 degrees metabolic reactions become slower, too high and chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace and proteins stop functioning
5. Atmospheric Pressure - force that air exerts on the surface of the body
26
Homeostasis
ability to maintain relatively stable conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing. a dynamic state of equilibrium
27
Control Mechanisms for Homeostasis - Seek to reverse a stressful situation and bring it back to normal
What are the 4 Control Mechanisms?
1. Communication between various body systems
2. At least 3 independent components
1) receptor
2) control center
3) effector
3. Negative Feedback - to prevent sudden or extreme change in the body
4. Positive Feedback - (ie. blood clotting)
28
Receptor
type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes (stimuli) by sending info (input) to the 2nd component the control center
Afferent Pathways - carries towards the control center
29
Control Center
determines the set point, analyzes the input it receives and determines appropriate response or cause of action
30
Effector
means for control center responses (output) to the stimulus
Efferent Pathway - info flows from the control center to the effector along this pathway
31
Negative Feedback
- - most homeostatic control mechanisms
- - output shuts off original stimulus or decrease intensity
- - mechanisms cause variable to change direction OPPOSITE of initial change
- - temperature - sensing thermostat
- - withdrawal reflex example
- - Increased blood sugar & its reduction (Beta cells in the pancreas stimulated by increased sugar and produce insulin which in turn produces glucogenesis which removes excess glucose from the blood there by reducing the original stimulus - high blood sugar)
32
Positive Feedback
- - the result of response enhances the original stimulus so the activity is accelerated
- - change that occurs in the same direction as the initial disturbance (example - blood clotting)
- -often referred to as CASCADES
- - enhancement of labor contractions during birth
- - sickle cell anemia (bad positive feedback) low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxia) cause rbc's to precipitate leading to sickling of the cells which destroys rbc's and diminishes function to carry oxygen, more hypoxia occurs and cycle is repeated
- - sickle cell anemia protects from malaria
- - most positive feedback systems are destructive
33
Homeostatic Imbalances
most disease is the result of disturbances called homeostatic imbalance
34
4 Types of Tissues
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
35
epithelial tissue
sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a cavity, forms boundaries
36
what are the functions of epithelial tissue?
protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, sensory reception
37
apical surface of epithelium is
the top layer
38
basal surface of epithelium is
the basement membrane (touches CT)
39
epithelium is avasuclar but innervated by
nerves
40
epithelium has a high regeneration (mytosis)capacity if it
receives proper nutrition
41
simple epithelium has _______ cell layers
one
42
stratified epithelium has _____ or more cell layers
two
43
microvilli
finger like extensions of plasma membrane that increases the surface area, sometimes have a fuzzy appearance called a brush border
44
cilia
epithelia that propel substances along their free surface
45
basement membrane
made up of reticular lamina & basal membrane, helps resist stretching and tearing
46
endothelium
provides a slick, friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessels & hollow organs of the cardiovascular system
47
mesothelium
found in serous membranes lining the body cavity & covering its organs
48
simple squamous epithelium
function: diffusion or filtration
location: lining of heart, air sacs of lungs
49
simple cuboidal epithelium
function: secretion & absorption
location: surface of ovaries, small glands
50
simple columnar epithelium
function: absorption & secretion of mucous
location: lines digestive tract
51
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
function: secretion
location: trachea
52
stratified squamous epithelium
function: protects underlying tissue
location: lining of mouth & vagina
53
transitional epithelium
function: stretches to permit distension
location: bladder & urethra
54
glandular epithelium
consists of one or more cells that make or secrete something, secretion is fluids that contain proteins, active process is making & releasing the product
55
endocrine glands
ductless, produce hormones, structurally diverse
56
exocrine glands
secrete their products onto body surfaces (sweat glands, mucous, oil & salivary glands)
57
2 types of exocrine glands
1. merocrine
| 2. holocrine
58
merocrine
secretes by exocytosis (pancreas, sweat, oil & salivary glands)
59
holocrine
accumulate their products until they rupture (sebaceous glands)
60
4 classes of CT
1. CT proper (fat, fibrous tissues of ligaments)
2. cartilage
3. bone
4. blood
61
all connective tissue arise from
mesenchyme
62
ground substance is composed of
interstitial fluid (fluid between cells)
63
fibers provide support, what are the 3 types
1. collagen
2. elastic
3. reticular fibers
64
collagen fibers
also called white fibers, extremely tough, provide strength, made of fibrous protein collagen
65
elastic fibers
also called yellow fibers, contain rubber like protein (elastin) found in skin, lungs, blood vessels
66
what are the primary blast cells for CT, cartilage, bone & blood?
1. CT proper = fibroblasts
2. cartilage = chondroblasts
3. bone = osteoblasts
4. blood = hematopoietic stem cells
67
4 accessory cell types
1. fat cells - nutrient storing
2. WBC's
3. mast cells
4. macrophages
68
mast cells
respond to injury, (cluster along blood vessels, detect foreign substances & initiate inflammatory responses)
69
macrophages
respond to injury, large irregular shaped cells that phagocytize foreign material (bacteria to dust), dispose of dead tissue cells
70
2 types of CT proper
1. loose CT
| 2. dense CT
71
3 types of loose CT
1. areolar
2. adipose (fat) tissue
3. reticular CT
72
areolar
most widely distributed CT in the body, serves as a universal packing material between tissues, supports & binds other tissues
73
adipose (fat) tissue
similar to areolar but has much greater nutrient storing ability
74
white fat
stores nutrients
75
brown fat
consumes its nutrient stores to generate heat, richly vascularized, occurs in babies
76
reticular CT
resembles areolar but has reticular fibers
| STROMA = internal framework that supports free blood cells
77
2 types of Dense CT
1. dense regular CT (fibrous CT)
| 2. dense irregular CT
78
dense regular CT
collagen fibers running in the same direction, parallel, slight stretch (Tendons, Ligaments, Aponeurosis)
79
tendon
connects muscle to bone
80
ligament
connects bone to bone
81
dense irregular CT
thicker & arranged irregularly, can pull in multiple directions, found in dermis of skin
82
cartilage
between CT & bone, tough but flexible, provides rigidity to what it supports, no nerve fibers, avascular, mostly chondroblasts, heals slowly
83
3 types of cartilage
1. hyaline
2. elastic
3. fibrocartilage
84
hyaline cartilage
- - gristle, most abundant cartilage found in the body
- - covers ends of long bones
- - tip of nose, trachea
- - in childhood makes up epiphyseal plates
- - on slide looks like rice puffs w/smooth background
85
elastic cartilage
- - nearly identical to hyaline, lots of fibers
- - strength & exceptional stretchability
- - ear & epiglottis
- - on slide looks like rice puffs w/very fibrous background
86
fibrocartilage
intervertebral discs & meniscus (in between discs in knee)
| -- appears blue on slide
87
Bone (osseous tissue)
- - well vascularized
| - - slide looks like rings on the inside of a tree
88
osteoblasts
build bone
89
osteocytes
mature bone cell, lies in lacunae, cell turnover
90
3 types of muscle tissue
1. skeletal
2. cardiac
3. smooth
91
skeletal muscles
- - voluntary
- - long cylindrical cells w/many nuclei
- - striated or banded appearance
- - attached to bones, as they contract they cause movement
92
cardiac muscle
- - involuntary
- - striated
- - uninucleated
- - branching cells fit closely together at unique junctions called intercalated discs which let the muscle contract as one unit
93
smooth muscle
-- involuntary
-- found in hollow walls of organs other than the heart
contracts & relaxes to squeeze substances through organs
-- no visible striations
94
3 types of covering & lining mechanisms
1. cutaneous
2. mucous
3. serous membrane
95
cutaneous membrane
skin, organ system of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium firmly attached to a thick layer of dense irregular CT
96
mucous membrane
lines body cavities that open to the exterior
97
serous membrane
- - simple squamous epithelium on loose CT (areolar)
- - moist membranes found in closed ventral cavities
- - clear membrane lubricates parietal & viseral layers so they slide across each other easily
- - named according to site & organ function (pleura = lungs, pericardium = heart, peritoneum = abdominopelvic cavity)
98
3 steps for wound repair
1. inflammation
2. organization
3. regeneration & fibrous effect permanent repair
99
inflammation
- - tissue injury causes injured tissue cells, macrophages & mast cells to release
- - WBC's, plasma rich in clotting proteins, antibodies & other substances to seep into the area
- - leaked proteins construct a clot, stop blood loss & prevent bacteria from spreading, clot forms scab
100
organization
- - first phase of tissue repair
- - blood clot replaced by granulation tissue
- - granulation tissue is delicate pink tissue w/capillaries growing in from nearby laying down a new capillary bed
- - capillaries are fragile & bleed easily
- - fibroblasts produce growth factors & collagen fibers bridge the gap
- - macrophages digest the original clot
101
regeneration
- - during organization surface epithelium begin to regenerate growing under the scab which then detaches
- - as the fibrous tissue beneath matures & contracts the regenerating epithelium starts to resemble that of adjacent skin
102
glycogenesis
formation of glycogen from glucose
103
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
104
gluconeogenesis
process of forming new glucose from non-carbohydrate molecules
105
lipogenesis
triglyceride synthesis
106
lipolysis
lipogenesis in reverse (breakdown of stored fats into glycerol & fatty acids)
107
matter
composed of elements, unique substances that can be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods
108
how many known elements are there?
112
109
how many of the 112 known elements occur in nature?
92
110
what are the 4 elements that make up 96% of bodyweight?
1. Carbon 65%
2. Oxygen 18.5%
3. Hydrogen 9.5%
4. Nitrogen 3.2%
111
carbon
65%, major component of both organic & inorganic molecules, needed for ATP production
112
oxygen
18.5%, primary component of all organic molecules which include carbs, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids
113
hydrogen
9.5% component of all organic molecules, influences pH of the body
114
nitrogen
3.2%, component of proteins & nucleic acids
115
less than 3.9% of the body is made up of
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, chlorine, magnesium, iodine, iron
116
synthesis
when atoms or molecules combine to form a larger more complex molecule, involves bond formation (combination, reaction)
117
decomposition
molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, reverse synthesis reaction AB --> A + B (catabolic reaction)
118
exchange reaction
(displacement) involves synthesis & decomposition AB+C --> AC+B and AB+CD --> AD+BC
119
oxidative reduction reaction
(redox reaction) decomposition reactions in which food fuels are catabolized for energy
120
4 factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions
1. temp - higher temp = faster reaction
2. concentration
3. particle size - smaller the particle faster the reaction
4. catalysts - substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions w/out themselves becoming chemically changed
121
water
most abundant & important inorganic compound in living materials
122
cushioning
helps protect body organs from physical trauma by acting as a resilient cushion
123
pH
acid - base concentration
124
the more __________ ions in a solution the more acidic the solution
hydrogen
125
pH scale runs from 0-14 & is logarithmic
pH below 7 is acidic
pH of 7 is neutral
pH above 7 is alkaline (basic)
126
logarithmic
each successive change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen
127
organic compounds
molecules unique to living organisms
128
carbohydrates
ready, easily used source of cellular fuel
129
monosaccharides
simple sugars, 3-7 carbon atoms
130
Pentose - 5 carbon monosaccharide
1. dexoyribose
| 2. ribose
131
Hexose - 6 carbon monosaccharide
1. glucose
2. galactose
3. fructose
132
disaccharides
double sugars formed when 2 monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis
133
sucrose =
glucose + fructose
134
lactose =
glucose + galactose
135
maltose =
glucose + glucose
136
polysaccharides
long chains of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis
137
starch
storage carbohydrate formed by plants
138
cellulose
indigestible polysaccharide found in plants, provides bulk that helps move feces
139
glycogen
storage carbohydrate of animal tissues
140
lipids
insoluble in water but dissolve in alcohol or ether
141
Neutral Fats (triglycerides)
most concentrated source of energy fuel, found in fat deposits, protect & insulate body organs
142
phospholipids
modified triglycerides, chief component of cell membranes, prevelant in nervous tissue
143
steroids
cholesterol is most important molecule in steroid manufacturing, in cell membrane, raw material of vitamin D, sex hormone, bile salts, fat soluble vitamins (A,E,K)
144
proteins
basic structural material of the body, 30% of cell mass, amino acids are the building blocks of proteins
145
nucleic acids
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen & phosphorus, 2 major classes DNA & RNA
146
DNA
A G C T
147
RNA
A G C U
148
ATP
organic molecule that stores & releases chemical energy in body cells
149
6 Lipids
1. neutral fats (triglycerides)
2. phospholipids
3. steroids
4. proteins
5. nucleic acids
6. ATP
150
cell
basic structural & functional unit of living organisms
151
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by
their specific subcellular structures
152
continuity of life has a _______ basis
cellular
153
plasma membrane (cell membrane)
defines extent of cell, separating 2 bodies of major fluid compartments (intracellular & extracellular)
154
integral protein
firmly inserted into lipid bilayer w/both hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions (some form channels that small water-soluble molecules can move thru)
155
peripheral proteins
- - not embedded in the lipid
- - some involved in mechanical functions
- - changing cell shape during cell division
- - muscle cell contraction
156
specializations of plasma membrane
microvilli
| membrane junctions
157
3 types of membrane junctions
1. tight junction - prevents molecules from passing thru
2. desmosome - anchoring junctions
3. gap junctions - communication junction (in heart & smooth muscle
158
membrane transport
selectively, differentially permeable barrier, allows some substances to pass thru while excluding others
159
passive processes
diffusion, osmosis
160
diffusion
means of transport for every body cell, molecules go from areas of higher concentration to lower
161
osmosis
diffusion of a solvent (water) thru selectively permeable membrane, occurs when water concentration differs on the 2 sides of a membrane
162
tonicity
ability of a solution to change the shape of cells by altering their internal water volume
163
isotonic
solutions with the same concentrations of non penetrating solutes as those found in cells
164
hypertonic
solutions with a higher concentration of non-penetrating solutes than in a cell
165
active process
when a cell uses the bond energy of ATP to move solutes across the membrane
166
sodium - potassium pump
drives sodium out & pumps potassium in
167
exocytosis
substances are moved from the cell interior to the extracellular space as a secretory vessel
168
endocytosis
phagocytosis - large material engulfed by cell
| pinocytosis - engulfing fluid
169
cytoplasm
cell forming material between the plasma membrane & the nucleus
170
cytoplasmic organelles
specialized cellular compartments performing a job to maintain the life of a cell
171
9 types of cytoplasmic organelles
1. mitochondria
2. ribosomes
3. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
4. golgi aparatus
5. lysosome
6. peroxisomes
7. cytoskeleton
8. centrosome
9. centrioles
172
mitochondria
- - thread like sausage shaped membranous organelles
- - enclosed by 2 membranes
- - power plant supplying most of the ATP
- - contain their own DNA & RNA
- - able to reproduce them selves
173
free ribosomes
make soluble proteins that function in cytosol
174
membrane-bound ribosomes
form RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum)
175
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
extensive system of interconnected tubes & parallel membranes
176
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
external surface studded w/ribosomes, manufactures all proteins secreted from the cell
177
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
lipid metabolism, cholesterol synthesis, synthesis of lipid, component of lipoprotein
178
golgi aparatus
secretory vesicles migrate to plasma membrane & discharge their contents from the cell by exocytosis
179
lysosome
- - contains digestive enzymes
- - work best in acidic conditions
- - digests particles taken in by endocytosis
- -degrading worn out or non functioning organelles
180
peroxisomes
- - sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes (oxidases & catalases)
- - neutralize dangerous free radicals
- - self replicating
181
cytoskeleton
elaborate series of rods running thru the cytosol (supports & generates cell movements)
182
microtubule
hollow tubes
183
microfilament
thin strands of protein actin
184
intermediate filaments
in between microtubule & microfilament
185
centrosome
region near the nucleus containing centrioles
186
centrioles
found near the nucleus, always forms base of cilia & flagella
187
2 cellular extensions
1. Cilia - whip like, motile
| 2. Flagella - larger than cilia, propels itself
188
nucleus
control center w/3 recognizable regions (nucleus envelope, nucleoli, chromatin)
189
mitosis
mother cell divides into 2 daughter cells (4 phases = PMAT)
190
body fluids (important for transport & dissolving)
1. interstitial fluid
2. blood plasma
3. cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
191
5 cellular excretions (substances that aid in digestion & act as lubricants)
1. interstitial fluid
2. gastric juices
3. saliva
4. mucous
5. serous fluids
192
extracellular matrix
most abundant extracellular material
193
cell differentiation
development of specific & destructive features in cells
194
apoptosis
programmed cellular death to eliminate un-needed cells
195
wear & tear theory of cell aging
aging due to little chemical insults which have cumulative effects (too much over a long period of time = breakdown)
1. environmental toxins
2. alcohol
3. pesticides
4. bacterial toxins
196
genetic theory
cessation of mitosis and cell aging are programmed into our genes
197
Water makes up 60-80% of body weight
#1 most abundant chemical substance in the body
197
telomere clock
determines the number of times a cell can divide
198
Sugar is __________
Deoxyribose
199
Chromatin
Fine unevenly stained network under light microscope, bumpy threads moving throughout the nucleoplasm
