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Anatomy & Phisiology I > A&P 1 - TEST 1 > Flashcards

A&P 1 - TEST 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another

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2
Q

Gross Anatomy

A

The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye

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3
Q

Regional Anatomy

A

All structures in a particular region of the body are examined at the same time

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4
Q

Systemic Anatomy

A

Anatomical studies system by system

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5
Q

Surface Anatomy

A

Study of the internal structures as the relate to the overlying skin

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6
Q

Microscopic Anatomy

A

Study of structures too small to see with the naked eye

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7
Q

What are the two types of microscopic anatomy?

A
  1. Cytology - study of cells of the body

2. Histology - study of tissues of the body

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8
Q

Developmental Anatomy

A

Study of structural changes that occur in the body throughout the lifespan

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9
Q

Physiology

A

Function of the body, how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities

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10
Q

Physiology focuses on…….

A

Events at a cellular or molecular level

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11
Q

What are the 3 subdivisions of physiology?

A
  1. Renal
  2. Neurophysiology
  3. Cardiovascular
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12
Q

What is the principle of complementary structure and function?

A

function always reflects structure. what a structure can do depends on its specific form. Example: blood flows in one direction through the heart bc the heart has valves that prevent back flow

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13
Q

SA Node

A

sets the pace of the heart

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14
Q

6 Levels of Structural Organization

A
  1. Chemical Level
  2. Cellular
  3. Tissue
  4. Organ
  5. Organ system
  6. Organismal Level
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15
Q

Chemical Level

A

simplest level of structural hierarchy

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16
Q

3 branches of the chemical level

A
  1. Atoms
  2. Molecules
  3. Organelles
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17
Q

Cells

A

Smallest unit of living things

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18
Q

Tissue

A

groups of similar cells that have a common function

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19
Q

4 Types of tissues

A
  1. Epithelium - covers body surfaces & lines cavities
  2. Muscle - provides movement
  3. Connective Tissue - protects organs
  4. Nervous Tissue - provides a means of communication by transmitting electrical impulses
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20
Q

Organ Level

A

Discrete structure composed of at least 2 tissue types that perform a specific function for the body

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21
Q

Organ System

A

Organs working together to accomplish a common purpose

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22
Q

Organismal Level

A

represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to promote life (made up of organ systems)

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23
Q

8 Necessary Life Functions

A
  1. Maintaining Boundaries - keeps internal separate from external (skin)
  2. Movement - promoted by muscular system
  3. Responsiveness - ability to sense changes in environment and respond
  4. Digestion - breaking down food to be absorbed into the blood
  5. Metabolism - broad term for all reactions that occur in body cells
  6. Excretion - removing waste
  7. Reproduction
  8. Growth
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24
Q

2 Types of Metabolism

A
  1. Catabolism - breaking down

2. Anabolism - (building up) synthesizing complex cellular structures from simpler substances

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25
Q

5 Survival Needs

A
  1. Nutrients - for energy & cell building
  2. Oxygen - required for most chemical reactions
  3. Water - 60 -80% of body weight
  4. Normal Body Temp - below 98 degrees metabolic reactions become slower, too high and chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace and proteins stop functioning
  5. Atmospheric Pressure - force that air exerts on the surface of the body
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26
Q

Homeostasis

A

ability to maintain relatively stable conditions even though the outside world is continuously changing. a dynamic state of equilibrium

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27
Q

Control Mechanisms for Homeostasis - Seek to reverse a stressful situation and bring it back to normal

What are the 4 Control Mechanisms?

A
  1. Communication between various body systems
  2. At least 3 independent components
    1) receptor
    2) control center
    3) effector
  3. Negative Feedback - to prevent sudden or extreme change in the body
  4. Positive Feedback - (ie. blood clotting)
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28
Q

Receptor

A

type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes (stimuli) by sending info (input) to the 2nd component the control center

Afferent Pathways - carries towards the control center

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29
Q

Control Center

A

determines the set point, analyzes the input it receives and determines appropriate response or cause of action

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30
Q

Effector

A

means for control center responses (output) to the stimulus

Efferent Pathway - info flows from the control center to the effector along this pathway

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31
Q

Negative Feedback

A
    • most homeostatic control mechanisms
    • output shuts off original stimulus or decrease intensity
    • mechanisms cause variable to change direction OPPOSITE of initial change
    • temperature - sensing thermostat
    • withdrawal reflex example
    • Increased blood sugar & its reduction (Beta cells in the pancreas stimulated by increased sugar and produce insulin which in turn produces glucogenesis which removes excess glucose from the blood there by reducing the original stimulus - high blood sugar)
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32
Q

Positive Feedback

A
    • the result of response enhances the original stimulus so the activity is accelerated
    • change that occurs in the same direction as the initial disturbance (example - blood clotting)
  • -often referred to as CASCADES
    • enhancement of labor contractions during birth
    • sickle cell anemia (bad positive feedback) low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxia) cause rbc’s to precipitate leading to sickling of the cells which destroys rbc’s and diminishes function to carry oxygen, more hypoxia occurs and cycle is repeated
    • sickle cell anemia protects from malaria
    • most positive feedback systems are destructive
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33
Q

Homeostatic Imbalances

A

most disease is the result of disturbances called homeostatic imbalance

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34
Q

4 Types of Tissues

A
  1. Epithelial
  2. Connective
  3. Muscle
  4. Nerve
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35
Q

epithelial tissue

A

sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a cavity, forms boundaries

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36
Q

what are the functions of epithelial tissue?

A

protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, sensory reception

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37
Q

apical surface of epithelium is

A

the top layer

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38
Q

basal surface of epithelium is

A

the basement membrane (touches CT)

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39
Q

epithelium is avasuclar but innervated by

A

nerves

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40
Q

epithelium has a high regeneration (mytosis)capacity if it

A

receives proper nutrition

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41
Q

simple epithelium has _______ cell layers

A

one

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42
Q

stratified epithelium has _____ or more cell layers

A

two

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43
Q

microvilli

A

finger like extensions of plasma membrane that increases the surface area, sometimes have a fuzzy appearance called a brush border

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44
Q

cilia

A

epithelia that propel substances along their free surface

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45
Q

basement membrane

A

made up of reticular lamina & basal membrane, helps resist stretching and tearing

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46
Q

endothelium

A

provides a slick, friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessels & hollow organs of the cardiovascular system

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47
Q

mesothelium

A

found in serous membranes lining the body cavity & covering its organs

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48
Q

simple squamous epithelium

A

function: diffusion or filtration
location: lining of heart, air sacs of lungs

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49
Q

simple cuboidal epithelium

A

function: secretion & absorption
location: surface of ovaries, small glands

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50
Q

simple columnar epithelium

A

function: absorption & secretion of mucous
location: lines digestive tract

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51
Q

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

function: secretion
location: trachea

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52
Q

stratified squamous epithelium

A

function: protects underlying tissue
location: lining of mouth & vagina

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53
Q

transitional epithelium

A

function: stretches to permit distension
location: bladder & urethra

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54
Q

glandular epithelium

A

consists of one or more cells that make or secrete something, secretion is fluids that contain proteins, active process is making & releasing the product

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55
Q

endocrine glands

A

ductless, produce hormones, structurally diverse

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56
Q

exocrine glands

A

secrete their products onto body surfaces (sweat glands, mucous, oil & salivary glands)

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57
Q

2 types of exocrine glands

A
  1. merocrine

2. holocrine

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58
Q

merocrine

A

secretes by exocytosis (pancreas, sweat, oil & salivary glands)

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59
Q

holocrine

A

accumulate their products until they rupture (sebaceous glands)

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60
Q

4 classes of CT

A
  1. CT proper (fat, fibrous tissues of ligaments)
  2. cartilage
  3. bone
  4. blood
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61
Q

all connective tissue arise from

A

mesenchyme

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62
Q

ground substance is composed of

A

interstitial fluid (fluid between cells)

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63
Q

fibers provide support, what are the 3 types

A
  1. collagen
  2. elastic
  3. reticular fibers
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64
Q

collagen fibers

A

also called white fibers, extremely tough, provide strength, made of fibrous protein collagen

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65
Q

elastic fibers

A

also called yellow fibers, contain rubber like protein (elastin) found in skin, lungs, blood vessels

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66
Q

what are the primary blast cells for CT, cartilage, bone & blood?

A
  1. CT proper = fibroblasts
  2. cartilage = chondroblasts
  3. bone = osteoblasts
  4. blood = hematopoietic stem cells
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67
Q

4 accessory cell types

A
  1. fat cells - nutrient storing
  2. WBC’s
  3. mast cells
  4. macrophages
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68
Q

mast cells

A

respond to injury, (cluster along blood vessels, detect foreign substances & initiate inflammatory responses)

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69
Q

macrophages

A

respond to injury, large irregular shaped cells that phagocytize foreign material (bacteria to dust), dispose of dead tissue cells

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70
Q

2 types of CT proper

A
  1. loose CT

2. dense CT

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71
Q

3 types of loose CT

A
  1. areolar
  2. adipose (fat) tissue
  3. reticular CT
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72
Q

areolar

A

most widely distributed CT in the body, serves as a universal packing material between tissues, supports & binds other tissues

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73
Q

adipose (fat) tissue

A

similar to areolar but has much greater nutrient storing ability

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74
Q

white fat

A

stores nutrients

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75
Q

brown fat

A

consumes its nutrient stores to generate heat, richly vascularized, occurs in babies

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76
Q

reticular CT

A

resembles areolar but has reticular fibers

STROMA = internal framework that supports free blood cells

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77
Q

2 types of Dense CT

A
  1. dense regular CT (fibrous CT)

2. dense irregular CT

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78
Q

dense regular CT

A

collagen fibers running in the same direction, parallel, slight stretch (Tendons, Ligaments, Aponeurosis)

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79
Q

tendon

A

connects muscle to bone

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80
Q

ligament

A

connects bone to bone

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81
Q

dense irregular CT

A

thicker & arranged irregularly, can pull in multiple directions, found in dermis of skin

82
Q

cartilage

A

between CT & bone, tough but flexible, provides rigidity to what it supports, no nerve fibers, avascular, mostly chondroblasts, heals slowly

83
Q

3 types of cartilage

A
  1. hyaline
  2. elastic
  3. fibrocartilage
84
Q

hyaline cartilage

A
    • gristle, most abundant cartilage found in the body
    • covers ends of long bones
    • tip of nose, trachea
    • in childhood makes up epiphyseal plates
    • on slide looks like rice puffs w/smooth background
85
Q

elastic cartilage

A
    • nearly identical to hyaline, lots of fibers
    • strength & exceptional stretchability
    • ear & epiglottis
    • on slide looks like rice puffs w/very fibrous background
86
Q

fibrocartilage

A

intervertebral discs & meniscus (in between discs in knee)

– appears blue on slide

87
Q

Bone (osseous tissue)

A
    • well vascularized

- - slide looks like rings on the inside of a tree

88
Q

osteoblasts

A

build bone

89
Q

osteocytes

A

mature bone cell, lies in lacunae, cell turnover

90
Q

3 types of muscle tissue

A
  1. skeletal
  2. cardiac
  3. smooth
91
Q

skeletal muscles

A
    • voluntary
    • long cylindrical cells w/many nuclei
    • striated or banded appearance
    • attached to bones, as they contract they cause movement
92
Q

cardiac muscle

A
    • involuntary
    • striated
    • uninucleated
    • branching cells fit closely together at unique junctions called intercalated discs which let the muscle contract as one unit
93
Q

smooth muscle

A

– involuntary
– found in hollow walls of organs other than the heart
contracts & relaxes to squeeze substances through organs
– no visible striations

94
Q

3 types of covering & lining mechanisms

A
  1. cutaneous
  2. mucous
  3. serous membrane
95
Q

cutaneous membrane

A

skin, organ system of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium firmly attached to a thick layer of dense irregular CT

96
Q

mucous membrane

A

lines body cavities that open to the exterior

97
Q

serous membrane

A
    • simple squamous epithelium on loose CT (areolar)
    • moist membranes found in closed ventral cavities
    • clear membrane lubricates parietal & viseral layers so they slide across each other easily
    • named according to site & organ function (pleura = lungs, pericardium = heart, peritoneum = abdominopelvic cavity)
98
Q

3 steps for wound repair

A
  1. inflammation
  2. organization
  3. regeneration & fibrous effect permanent repair
99
Q

inflammation

A
    • tissue injury causes injured tissue cells, macrophages & mast cells to release
    • WBC’s, plasma rich in clotting proteins, antibodies & other substances to seep into the area
    • leaked proteins construct a clot, stop blood loss & prevent bacteria from spreading, clot forms scab
100
Q

organization

A
    • first phase of tissue repair
    • blood clot replaced by granulation tissue
    • granulation tissue is delicate pink tissue w/capillaries growing in from nearby laying down a new capillary bed
    • capillaries are fragile & bleed easily
    • fibroblasts produce growth factors & collagen fibers bridge the gap
    • macrophages digest the original clot
101
Q

regeneration

A
    • during organization surface epithelium begin to regenerate growing under the scab which then detaches
    • as the fibrous tissue beneath matures & contracts the regenerating epithelium starts to resemble that of adjacent skin
102
Q

glycogenesis

A

formation of glycogen from glucose

103
Q

glycogenolysis

A

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

104
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

process of forming new glucose from non-carbohydrate molecules

105
Q

lipogenesis

A

triglyceride synthesis

106
Q

lipolysis

A

lipogenesis in reverse (breakdown of stored fats into glycerol & fatty acids)

107
Q

matter

A

composed of elements, unique substances that can be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods

108
Q

how many known elements are there?

A

112

109
Q

how many of the 112 known elements occur in nature?

A

92

110
Q

what are the 4 elements that make up 96% of bodyweight?

A
  1. Carbon 65%
  2. Oxygen 18.5%
  3. Hydrogen 9.5%
  4. Nitrogen 3.2%
111
Q

carbon

A

65%, major component of both organic & inorganic molecules, needed for ATP production

112
Q

oxygen

A

18.5%, primary component of all organic molecules which include carbs, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids

113
Q

hydrogen

A

9.5% component of all organic molecules, influences pH of the body

114
Q

nitrogen

A

3.2%, component of proteins & nucleic acids

115
Q

less than 3.9% of the body is made up of

A

calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, chlorine, magnesium, iodine, iron

116
Q

synthesis

A

when atoms or molecules combine to form a larger more complex molecule, involves bond formation (combination, reaction)

117
Q

decomposition

A

molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, reverse synthesis reaction AB –> A + B (catabolic reaction)

118
Q

exchange reaction

A

(displacement) involves synthesis & decomposition AB+C –> AC+B and AB+CD –> AD+BC

119
Q

oxidative reduction reaction

A

(redox reaction) decomposition reactions in which food fuels are catabolized for energy

120
Q

4 factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions

A
  1. temp - higher temp = faster reaction
  2. concentration
  3. particle size - smaller the particle faster the reaction
  4. catalysts - substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions w/out themselves becoming chemically changed
121
Q

water

A

most abundant & important inorganic compound in living materials

122
Q

cushioning

A

helps protect body organs from physical trauma by acting as a resilient cushion

123
Q

pH

A

acid - base concentration

124
Q

the more __________ ions in a solution the more acidic the solution

A

hydrogen

125
Q

pH scale runs from 0-14 & is logarithmic

A

pH below 7 is acidic
pH of 7 is neutral
pH above 7 is alkaline (basic)

126
Q

logarithmic

A

each successive change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen

127
Q

organic compounds

A

molecules unique to living organisms

128
Q

carbohydrates

A

ready, easily used source of cellular fuel

129
Q

monosaccharides

A

simple sugars, 3-7 carbon atoms

130
Q

Pentose - 5 carbon monosaccharide

A
  1. dexoyribose

2. ribose

131
Q

Hexose - 6 carbon monosaccharide

A
  1. glucose
  2. galactose
  3. fructose
132
Q

disaccharides

A

double sugars formed when 2 monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis

133
Q

sucrose =

A

glucose + fructose

134
Q

lactose =

A

glucose + galactose

135
Q

maltose =

A

glucose + glucose

136
Q

polysaccharides

A

long chains of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis

137
Q

starch

A

storage carbohydrate formed by plants

138
Q

cellulose

A

indigestible polysaccharide found in plants, provides bulk that helps move feces

139
Q

glycogen

A

storage carbohydrate of animal tissues

140
Q

lipids

A

insoluble in water but dissolve in alcohol or ether

141
Q

Neutral Fats (triglycerides)

A

most concentrated source of energy fuel, found in fat deposits, protect & insulate body organs

142
Q

phospholipids

A

modified triglycerides, chief component of cell membranes, prevelant in nervous tissue

143
Q

steroids

A

cholesterol is most important molecule in steroid manufacturing, in cell membrane, raw material of vitamin D, sex hormone, bile salts, fat soluble vitamins (A,E,K)

144
Q

proteins

A

basic structural material of the body, 30% of cell mass, amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

145
Q

nucleic acids

A

composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen & phosphorus, 2 major classes DNA & RNA

146
Q

DNA

A

A G C T

147
Q

RNA

A

A G C U

148
Q

ATP

A

organic molecule that stores & releases chemical energy in body cells

149
Q

6 Lipids

A
  1. neutral fats (triglycerides)
  2. phospholipids
  3. steroids
  4. proteins
  5. nucleic acids
  6. ATP
150
Q

cell

A

basic structural & functional unit of living organisms

151
Q

biochemical activities of cells are dictated by

A

their specific subcellular structures

152
Q

continuity of life has a _______ basis

A

cellular

153
Q

plasma membrane (cell membrane)

A

defines extent of cell, separating 2 bodies of major fluid compartments (intracellular & extracellular)

154
Q

integral protein

A

firmly inserted into lipid bilayer w/both hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions (some form channels that small water-soluble molecules can move thru)

155
Q

peripheral proteins

A
    • not embedded in the lipid
    • some involved in mechanical functions
    • changing cell shape during cell division
    • muscle cell contraction
156
Q

specializations of plasma membrane

A

microvilli

membrane junctions

157
Q

3 types of membrane junctions

A
  1. tight junction - prevents molecules from passing thru
  2. desmosome - anchoring junctions
  3. gap junctions - communication junction (in heart & smooth muscle
158
Q

membrane transport

A

selectively, differentially permeable barrier, allows some substances to pass thru while excluding others

159
Q

passive processes

A

diffusion, osmosis

160
Q

diffusion

A

means of transport for every body cell, molecules go from areas of higher concentration to lower

161
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of a solvent (water) thru selectively permeable membrane, occurs when water concentration differs on the 2 sides of a membrane

162
Q

tonicity

A

ability of a solution to change the shape of cells by altering their internal water volume

163
Q

isotonic

A

solutions with the same concentrations of non penetrating solutes as those found in cells

164
Q

hypertonic

A

solutions with a higher concentration of non-penetrating solutes than in a cell

165
Q

active process

A

when a cell uses the bond energy of ATP to move solutes across the membrane

166
Q

sodium - potassium pump

A

drives sodium out & pumps potassium in

167
Q

exocytosis

A

substances are moved from the cell interior to the extracellular space as a secretory vessel

168
Q

endocytosis

A

phagocytosis - large material engulfed by cell

pinocytosis - engulfing fluid

169
Q

cytoplasm

A

cell forming material between the plasma membrane & the nucleus

170
Q

cytoplasmic organelles

A

specialized cellular compartments performing a job to maintain the life of a cell

171
Q

9 types of cytoplasmic organelles

A
  1. mitochondria
  2. ribosomes
  3. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
  4. golgi aparatus
  5. lysosome
  6. peroxisomes
  7. cytoskeleton
  8. centrosome
  9. centrioles
172
Q

mitochondria

A
    • thread like sausage shaped membranous organelles
    • enclosed by 2 membranes
    • power plant supplying most of the ATP
    • contain their own DNA & RNA
    • able to reproduce them selves
173
Q

free ribosomes

A

make soluble proteins that function in cytosol

174
Q

membrane-bound ribosomes

A

form RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum)

175
Q

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

extensive system of interconnected tubes & parallel membranes

176
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A

external surface studded w/ribosomes, manufactures all proteins secreted from the cell

177
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

A

lipid metabolism, cholesterol synthesis, synthesis of lipid, component of lipoprotein

178
Q

golgi aparatus

A

secretory vesicles migrate to plasma membrane & discharge their contents from the cell by exocytosis

179
Q

lysosome

A
    • contains digestive enzymes
    • work best in acidic conditions
    • digests particles taken in by endocytosis
  • -degrading worn out or non functioning organelles
180
Q

peroxisomes

A
    • sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes (oxidases & catalases)
    • neutralize dangerous free radicals
    • self replicating
181
Q

cytoskeleton

A

elaborate series of rods running thru the cytosol (supports & generates cell movements)

182
Q

microtubule

A

hollow tubes

183
Q

microfilament

A

thin strands of protein actin

184
Q

intermediate filaments

A

in between microtubule & microfilament

185
Q

centrosome

A

region near the nucleus containing centrioles

186
Q

centrioles

A

found near the nucleus, always forms base of cilia & flagella

187
Q

2 cellular extensions

A
  1. Cilia - whip like, motile

2. Flagella - larger than cilia, propels itself

188
Q

nucleus

A

control center w/3 recognizable regions (nucleus envelope, nucleoli, chromatin)

189
Q

mitosis

A

mother cell divides into 2 daughter cells (4 phases = PMAT)

190
Q

body fluids (important for transport & dissolving)

A
  1. interstitial fluid
  2. blood plasma
  3. cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
191
Q

5 cellular excretions (substances that aid in digestion & act as lubricants)

A
  1. interstitial fluid
  2. gastric juices
  3. saliva
  4. mucous
  5. serous fluids
192
Q

extracellular matrix

A

most abundant extracellular material

193
Q

cell differentiation

A

development of specific & destructive features in cells

194
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cellular death to eliminate un-needed cells

195
Q

wear & tear theory of cell aging

A

aging due to little chemical insults which have cumulative effects (too much over a long period of time = breakdown)

  1. environmental toxins
  2. alcohol
  3. pesticides
  4. bacterial toxins
196
Q

genetic theory

A

cessation of mitosis and cell aging are programmed into our genes

197
Q

Water makes up 60-80% of body weight

A

1 most abundant chemical substance in the body

197
Q

telomere clock

A

determines the number of times a cell can divide

198
Q

Sugar is __________

A

Deoxyribose

199
Q

Chromatin

A

Fine unevenly stained network under light microscope, bumpy threads moving throughout the nucleoplasm

Anatomy & Phisiology I (3 decks)

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