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Psychology > A-Level Psychology Key Terms > Flashcards

A-Level Psychology Key Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

Research methods

A

Techniques used to gather data on the mind and behaviour.

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2
Q

Experiments

A

Investigation into the effects of an independent variable on a dependant variable.
-includes lab, field, natural and quasi.

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3
Q

Dependant variable

A

Is measured

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3
Q

Independent variable

A

Is changed or manipulate

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4
Q

Extraneous variable

A

May affect the dependent variable if not controlled (so becoming confounding variables).

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5
Q

Experimental designs

A

Refers to how the participants in an experiment have been organised.
-includes independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs.

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5
Q

Questionnaires

A

Written questionnaires are used to allow participants to ‘self report’ on their beliefs and attitudes. These can be open or closed.

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6
Q

Hypothesis

A

Testable statements of predicted outcomes, where null predicts no significant effects, and alternative predicts a significant effect.
Directional offers a prediction of a specific effect, and non-directional predicts an effect yet is more open.

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7
Q

Interviews

A

Questions that are asked in person or over the phone. These can be more or less structured.

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8
Q

Observations

A

Participant behaviour that is observed first-handed.
-includes naturalistic or controlled, covert or overt, participant or non-participant.

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8
Q

Case studies

A

In depth investigation into one person or small group.

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8
Q

Correlations

A

The relationship between two co-variables that is measured.

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9
Q

Target population

A

The group of people an investigation aims to investigate, and to which findings will be applied to.

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10
Q

Content analysis

A

Analysis of qualitative data using coding, to sport trends. This can be extended through conducting a thematic analysis.

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11
Q

Ethical issues

A

Issues relating to the protection of participants from harm.
-included informed consent, deception, right to withdraw, confidentiality and protection from harm.
-can be dealt with through debriefs, gaining retrospective consent, offering counselling or terminating research if harm is caused.

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11
Q

Samples

A

Selection of the target population directly studied in an investigation. They can be collected randomly, systematically, voluntarily, asking those available at the time or stratified.

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12
Q

Pilot studies

A

Small-scale prototypes of a study, done to see if there are any problems with the planned investigation which can be improved.

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13
Q

Primary data

A

Gathered first-hand by the researcher conducting the investigation.

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14
Q

Secondary data

A

Data analysed in an investigation that was previously gathered by another researcher.

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15
Q

Meta-analysis

A

A process in which a number of studies are identified which have investigated the same aims or hypothesis, to pool their results and produce a joint conclusion.

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16
Q

Qualitative data

A

Descriptive information using pictures or words.

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17
Q

Quantitative data

A

Numerical or statistical
-include nominal, ordinal and interval data

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18
Q

Ordinal data

A

Ordered data with unequal intervals eg. Attitude rankings

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18
Q

Nominal data

A

Data in distinct categories eg. Gender or eye colour

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18
Q

Interval data

A

Ordered data with equal intervals between each value eg. Temperature or time

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19
Q

Data analysis

A

Process of analysing quantitative through measures of central tendency or dispersion, tests of statistical significance, and presenting them in appropriate graphical formats.

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20
Q

Subjectivity

A

Explanation or analysis which is based on personal opinions or feelings

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21
Q

Objectivity

A

Not based on opinion or interpretation, so is more scientific and factual,

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21
Q

Results

A

The specific data or findings produced from an investigation.

22
Q

Conclusions

A

An interpretation of what the results tell us about the topic under investigation.

23
Q

Validity

A

A question of whether a test measures what it intends to.

24
Q

Population validity

A

Whether the findings of a study represent and can be applied to a wider group of people.

25
Q

Ecological validity

A

The extent to which results/findings can explain behaviour in real-life situations.

26
Q

Internal validity

A

Whether the measures used in a test actually test what they were designed to. This is limited if the extraneous variables are not controlled.

27
Q

Face validity

A

Whether a test or measure appears at first glance, to measure what it intended to.

28
Q

Concurrent validity

A

The extent to which the results from a test or measure are close to or match the results of other recognised or well established tests.

29
Q

Temporal validity

A

The extent to which results or findings can be applied across time.

30
Q

Peer-review

A

The assessment of psychological research by experts in the field, prior to publication. Is intended to validate the quality and relevance of the research, suggest improvements or amendments or decide whether to award funding to a proposed project.

31
Q

Reliability

A

The extent to which results are consistent and trustworthy. Reliability can be checked which standardised procedures are used, and research can be replicated.
-includes ’test-re-test’ and ‘inter-observer’.

32
Q

Nurture

A

Explanations referring to environmental factors and experiences

32
Q

Reporting psychological investigations

A

The format for writing up research includes…
-abstract; summary of all key details in the research
-introduction; review of relevant area, aims and hypothesis
-method; description of research process
-results; summary of key findings
-discussion; what the results tell us
-references; list of sources referred to

33
Q

Learning theories

A

Explaining behaviour as resulting from learning through associations or from experiences.
-includes classical and operant conditioning (behaviourism) as well as social learning theory.

34
Q

Interactionist approach

A

Explanations which focus on the interaction between nature and nurture factors eg. The diathesis stress model

35
Q

Nature

A

Explanations referring to innate, biological, inherited influences

36
Q

Genes

A

Inherited from parents, genes are small sections of DNA that determine features and characteristics of an organism.

37
Q

Nervous system

A

Consists of the central and peripheral nervous system, and transmits messages across the body using electrical signals.

38
Q

Neurones

A

Basic building blocks of the nervous system, and ,made up of nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.
-include sensory, relay and motor neurones

39
Q

Endocrine system

A

A bodily communication system which instructs glands to release hormones into the blood which act upon target organs.

39
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals, contained in vesicles, which transmit messages between neurones by crossing the synapse between them. Can be excitatory or inhibitory.

40
Q

Brain hemispheres

A

The two halves of the brain each with specialised functions (lateralisation of function)

40
Q

Lobes of the brain

A

Sections of the cerebrum, each with specialised functions
-include frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital

41
Q

Brain scanning

A

The methods of studying the brain eg MRI, EEG, ERP

42
Q

Biological rhythms

A

Internal biological rhythms that control bodily processed eg. Heart rate.
-circadian rhythms have a 24hr cycle, ultradian have a shorter that 24hr cycle, and infradian longer than 24hrs.

42
Q

Holism

A

Theories which propose that it only makes sense to study an invisible system as a whole, rather than break it down into smaller units.

43
Q

Free will

A

The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour and thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces.

43
Q

Determinism

A

View that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces
-including hard, soft biological, environmental and psychic determinism

44
Q

Reductionism

A

Explanations focusing narrowly on specific elements or aspects of behaviour, reduced to its component parts
-includes biological, environmental and machine reductionism

45
Q

Gender bias

A

The tendency of research or theories to fail to represent the experience and behaviour of both men and women.
-androcentrism refers to male-centredness
-alpha bias is the tendency to exaggerate gender differences, and beta bias is the tendency to ignore them.

46
Q

Culture bias

A

The tendency to interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture, ignoring the effects of cultural differences on behaviour.
-ethnocentrism is an example of this, meaning to judge ones culture by the standard of your own, or a belief in the superiority of ones own culture.

47
Q

Idiographic approach

A

Research focusing more on individual cases as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.

48
Q

Nomothetic approach

A

Research which aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principals and universal laws.

49
Q

Socially sensitive research

A

Research in which there are potential consequences or implications, directly or indirectly for the participants or class of people represented by the research.

50
Q

Approaches

A

A way to explain behaviour, as a general perspective or mode of thinking
-includes behaviourist, social learning, cognitive, biological, psychodynamic or humanistic

51
Q

Cognitive psychology and schema theory

A

Cognitive explanations focus on internal mental processes and their influence on behaviour.
-schemas are central to cognitive theories, as they are mental frameworks of previous knowledge, built through past experiences, through which we understand new information.

52
Q

Memory

A

The processes that are used to acquire store, retain and later retrieve information. It is studied by cognitive psychologists.

52
Q

Biopsychology

A

The study of the biological bases, or physiological correlates, of behaviour. It is a branch of neuroscience, the study of the nervous system

53
Q

Attachment

A

The study of the emotional bonds between individuals.

54
Q

Psychopathology

A

The study of metal disorders in terms of their causes, development, course, classification and treatment.
-includes depression, phobias, OCD, schizophrenia and gender dysphoria

55
Q

Social influence

A

The study of how others influence our behaviour
-includes conformity, obedience and bystander effects

56
Q

Gender

A

A persons psychological status as either masculine or feminine. Explores how and why our gender identities develop

57
Q

Forensic psychology

A

The study of criminal behaviour, including attempts to explain its causes and identify effective treatments.

Psychology (4 decks)

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