A-Level Psychology Key Terms Flashcards
Research methods
Techniques used to gather data on the mind and behaviour.
Experiments
Investigation into the effects of an independent variable on a dependant variable.
-includes lab, field, natural and quasi.
Dependant variable
Is measured
Independent variable
Is changed or manipulate
Extraneous variable
May affect the dependent variable if not controlled (so becoming confounding variables).
Experimental designs
Refers to how the participants in an experiment have been organised.
-includes independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs.
Questionnaires
Written questionnaires are used to allow participants to ‘self report’ on their beliefs and attitudes. These can be open or closed.
Hypothesis
Testable statements of predicted outcomes, where null predicts no significant effects, and alternative predicts a significant effect.
Directional offers a prediction of a specific effect, and non-directional predicts an effect yet is more open.
Interviews
Questions that are asked in person or over the phone. These can be more or less structured.
Observations
Participant behaviour that is observed first-handed.
-includes naturalistic or controlled, covert or overt, participant or non-participant.
Case studies
In depth investigation into one person or small group.
Correlations
The relationship between two co-variables that is measured.
Target population
The group of people an investigation aims to investigate, and to which findings will be applied to.
Content analysis
Analysis of qualitative data using coding, to sport trends. This can be extended through conducting a thematic analysis.
Ethical issues
Issues relating to the protection of participants from harm.
-included informed consent, deception, right to withdraw, confidentiality and protection from harm.
-can be dealt with through debriefs, gaining retrospective consent, offering counselling or terminating research if harm is caused.
Samples
Selection of the target population directly studied in an investigation. They can be collected randomly, systematically, voluntarily, asking those available at the time or stratified.
Pilot studies
Small-scale prototypes of a study, done to see if there are any problems with the planned investigation which can be improved.
Primary data
Gathered first-hand by the researcher conducting the investigation.
Secondary data
Data analysed in an investigation that was previously gathered by another researcher.
Meta-analysis
A process in which a number of studies are identified which have investigated the same aims or hypothesis, to pool their results and produce a joint conclusion.
Qualitative data
Descriptive information using pictures or words.
Quantitative data
Numerical or statistical
-include nominal, ordinal and interval data
Ordinal data
Ordered data with unequal intervals eg. Attitude rankings
Nominal data
Data in distinct categories eg. Gender or eye colour
Interval data
Ordered data with equal intervals between each value eg. Temperature or time
Data analysis
Process of analysing quantitative through measures of central tendency or dispersion, tests of statistical significance, and presenting them in appropriate graphical formats.
Subjectivity
Explanation or analysis which is based on personal opinions or feelings
Objectivity
Not based on opinion or interpretation, so is more scientific and factual,
Results
The specific data or findings produced from an investigation.
Conclusions
An interpretation of what the results tell us about the topic under investigation.
Validity
A question of whether a test measures what it intends to.
Population validity
Whether the findings of a study represent and can be applied to a wider group of people.
Ecological validity
The extent to which results/findings can explain behaviour in real-life situations.
Internal validity
Whether the measures used in a test actually test what they were designed to. This is limited if the extraneous variables are not controlled.
Face validity
Whether a test or measure appears at first glance, to measure what it intended to.
Concurrent validity
The extent to which the results from a test or measure are close to or match the results of other recognised or well established tests.
Temporal validity
The extent to which results or findings can be applied across time.
Peer-review
The assessment of psychological research by experts in the field, prior to publication. Is intended to validate the quality and relevance of the research, suggest improvements or amendments or decide whether to award funding to a proposed project.
Reliability
The extent to which results are consistent and trustworthy. Reliability can be checked which standardised procedures are used, and research can be replicated.
-includes ’test-re-test’ and ‘inter-observer’.
Nurture
Explanations referring to environmental factors and experiences
Reporting psychological investigations
The format for writing up research includes…
-abstract; summary of all key details in the research
-introduction; review of relevant area, aims and hypothesis
-method; description of research process
-results; summary of key findings
-discussion; what the results tell us
-references; list of sources referred to
Learning theories
Explaining behaviour as resulting from learning through associations or from experiences.
-includes classical and operant conditioning (behaviourism) as well as social learning theory.
Interactionist approach
Explanations which focus on the interaction between nature and nurture factors eg. The diathesis stress model
Nature
Explanations referring to innate, biological, inherited influences
Genes
Inherited from parents, genes are small sections of DNA that determine features and characteristics of an organism.
Nervous system
Consists of the central and peripheral nervous system, and transmits messages across the body using electrical signals.
Neurones
Basic building blocks of the nervous system, and ,made up of nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.
-include sensory, relay and motor neurones
Endocrine system
A bodily communication system which instructs glands to release hormones into the blood which act upon target organs.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals, contained in vesicles, which transmit messages between neurones by crossing the synapse between them. Can be excitatory or inhibitory.
Brain hemispheres
The two halves of the brain each with specialised functions (lateralisation of function)
Lobes of the brain
Sections of the cerebrum, each with specialised functions
-include frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital
Brain scanning
The methods of studying the brain eg MRI, EEG, ERP
Biological rhythms
Internal biological rhythms that control bodily processed eg. Heart rate.
-circadian rhythms have a 24hr cycle, ultradian have a shorter that 24hr cycle, and infradian longer than 24hrs.
Holism
Theories which propose that it only makes sense to study an invisible system as a whole, rather than break it down into smaller units.
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour and thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces.
Determinism
View that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces
-including hard, soft biological, environmental and psychic determinism
Reductionism
Explanations focusing narrowly on specific elements or aspects of behaviour, reduced to its component parts
-includes biological, environmental and machine reductionism
Gender bias
The tendency of research or theories to fail to represent the experience and behaviour of both men and women.
-androcentrism refers to male-centredness
-alpha bias is the tendency to exaggerate gender differences, and beta bias is the tendency to ignore them.
Culture bias
The tendency to interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture, ignoring the effects of cultural differences on behaviour.
-ethnocentrism is an example of this, meaning to judge ones culture by the standard of your own, or a belief in the superiority of ones own culture.
Idiographic approach
Research focusing more on individual cases as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.
Nomothetic approach
Research which aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principals and universal laws.
Socially sensitive research
Research in which there are potential consequences or implications, directly or indirectly for the participants or class of people represented by the research.
Approaches
A way to explain behaviour, as a general perspective or mode of thinking
-includes behaviourist, social learning, cognitive, biological, psychodynamic or humanistic
Cognitive psychology and schema theory
Cognitive explanations focus on internal mental processes and their influence on behaviour.
-schemas are central to cognitive theories, as they are mental frameworks of previous knowledge, built through past experiences, through which we understand new information.
Memory
The processes that are used to acquire store, retain and later retrieve information. It is studied by cognitive psychologists.
Biopsychology
The study of the biological bases, or physiological correlates, of behaviour. It is a branch of neuroscience, the study of the nervous system
Attachment
The study of the emotional bonds between individuals.
Psychopathology
The study of metal disorders in terms of their causes, development, course, classification and treatment.
-includes depression, phobias, OCD, schizophrenia and gender dysphoria
Social influence
The study of how others influence our behaviour
-includes conformity, obedience and bystander effects
Gender
A persons psychological status as either masculine or feminine. Explores how and why our gender identities develop
Forensic psychology
The study of criminal behaviour, including attempts to explain its causes and identify effective treatments.
