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Psychology > 4.2.2 Biopsychology > Flashcards

4.2.2 Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

The nervous system is a body wide network of specialised nerve cells, that collects, processes, and responds to information in the environment, and co-ordinates organs and cells within the body.

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2
Q

What are the 2 functions of the nervous system?

A

-to collect, process and respond to information in the external environment
-to co-ordinate the workings of organs and cells within the body
(Done via the transmission of electrical impulses)

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3
Q

What are the 2 components of the nervous system?

A

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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4
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is the origin of all complex commands and decision-making.

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5
Q

What is the brain?

A

The brain is the centre of all conscious awareness, and is involved in all psychological processes.

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6
Q

What are the 6 areas of the brain and their functions?

A

Occipital lobe- processes visual information
Temporal lobe- processes auditory information
Parietal lobe- integrates information from senses
Frontal lobe- higher order functions eg. Logic

Brain stem- connects the brain to the spinal chord and controls involuntary processes
Cerebellum- controls muscular activity and balance

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7
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A

The spinal cord transfers messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body, and is responsible for reflex actions that do not involve the brain.

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8
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

The peripheral nervous system is a body wide network of neurones, that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system and the rest of the body.

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9
Q

What neurones are involved in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Sensory neurones- transmit messages to the CNS
Motor neurones- transmit messages away from the CNS

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10
Q

What are the 2 components of the PNS?

A

The somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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11
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

-the primary means of communication between the CNS and the external environment
-made up of sensory receptors which carry information to the CNS, and motor pathways, which allow the brain to control muscle responses
-it is under conscious control

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12
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

-governs the vital functions that take place within the body, playing an important role in homeostasis (maintains internal processes)
-transmits information to and from internal organs
-it is an involuntary process
-consists only of motor pathways, and has 2 main components

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13
Q

What are the 2 components of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

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14
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Involved in responses and physiological changes that prepare the body for fight or flight. The impulses travel from the CNS to organs in the body. Eg. Increased heart rate, breathing rate and blood flow, pupil dilation and inhibited digestion and urination.

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15
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Involved in returning the body to a resting state, and restores normal physiological functioning after a period of stress. Eg. Decreased heart rate, breathing rate and blood flow, pupil contraction and restarts digestion and urination

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16
Q

What are neurones?

A

Neurones are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals. They each have a different function depending on its location in the body and its role within the nervous system

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17
Q

What are the three types of neurones?

A

Sensory, relay and motor neurones

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18
Q

Describe the structure and function of a sensory neurone

A

Long dendrites, short axon
Pseudounipolar- axon is split into two branches
Found in receptors
Carry messages from receptors to the CNS

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19
Q

Describe the structure and function of a relay neurone

A

Many short dendrites and a short axon
Multipolar- one axon but several dendrite
No myelin sheath
Found in the CNS to allow communication between the other two neurones

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20
Q

Describe the structure and function of a motor neurone

A

Short dendrites, long axon
Multipolar- one axon but several dendrites
Found in the CNS and PNS
Transmit impulses to effectors to produce a response

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21
Q

What is the function of dendrites?

A

Receive signals from receptors or other neurones, and carry them towards the cell body

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22
Q

What is the function of the cell body?

A

To contain the genetic material of the cell in the nucleus, so controls its activities

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23
Q

What is the function of the axon?

A

To carry nerve impulses in the form of an electrical signal (action potential) towards the axon terminal
-it is insulated and protected by the myelin sheath
-the nodes of ranvier speed up transmission by forcing impulses to jump across the gaps

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24
Q

What is the function of the axon terminal?

A

To connect the neurone to other neurones and communicate with them over a synapse, through synaptic transmission
-sometimes they connect motor neurones directly to an effector

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25
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The gap between two neurones

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26
Q

In what form are impulses transmitted across the synapse?

A

Chemical (neurotransmitters)

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27
Q

What is the charge of a neurone at rest?

A

Negatively charged

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28
Q

Describe the process of synaptic transmission

A

When a neurone is at rest, the inside of the cell is negatively charged.
When it is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell momentarily becomes positively charged.
This causes an action potential to occur, creating an electrical impulse in the neurone, which travels down the axon.
When the electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles into the synapse.
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the post-synaptic terminal, which stimulates the receptors.
For the action potential to be passed onto the next neurone, the electrical charge needs to pass a threshold.
Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, so make the charge more positive (depolarisation). Whereas some are inhibitory, so and make the charge more negative (hyperpolarisation).
The excitatory and inhibitory effects of the binding neurotransmitters are summed through the process of summation.
If the net-effect is inhibitory, the neurone will not fire, but if it is excitatory, the neurone will fire.
The neurotransmitters detach and are reabsorbed by the presynaptic terminal to be released again (re-uptake), or undergo enzymatic degradation.

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29
Q

What are neurotransmitters released from?

A

Vesicles in the presynaptic terminal

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30
Q

What is the effect of excitatory neurotransmitters?

A

They make the charge more positive, so have a depolarising effect.

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31
Q

What is the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A

They make the charge more negative, so have a hyperpolarising effect.

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32
Q

What is summation?

A

The sum of the excitatory and inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters, to calculate the net-effect on the next neurone.

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33
Q

What happens to neurotransmitters when they detach from the receptors?

A

Re-uptake or enzymatic degradation

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34
Q

How do neurotransmitters travel across the synapse?

A

By diffusion

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35
Q

Describe the process which determines whether a neurone will fire or not

A

Neurones at rest are negatively charged compared to their surroundings.
For it to fire (trigger an action potential), it must momentarily become positively charged/ depolarised.
This means the excitatory effects of neurotransmitters binding to the next neurone must reach a threshold- after summation has occurred.
Excitatory neurones have a depolarising effect, known as EPSPs/ excitatory postsynaptic potentials: they increase the chance of the neurone firing
Inhibitory neurones have a hyperpolarising effect known as IPSPs/ inhibitory postsynaptic potentials: they decrease the chance of the neurone firing.

If the net-effect of the binding neurotransmitters is inhibitory, then the post-synaptic neurone will not fire.
If the net-effect of the binding neurotransmitters is excitatory, then the post-synaptic neurone will fire (action potential triggered).

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36
Q

Why do neurones only transmit information in one direction?

A

The synaptic vesicles that contain the neurotransmitter are only released from the presynaptic terminal.
The receptors that detect neurotransmitters are only present on the postsynaptic terminal.
It is the binding of the neurotransmitter that enables information to be passed on.

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37
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages known as hormones into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body.

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38
Q

What are hormones?

A

Hormones circulate in the bloodstream and travel to target organs where they produce a specific effect. Each gland produces and secretes different hormones.

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39
Q

Name the main glands in the endocrine system?

A

Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Ovaries (in females)
Testes (in males)

40
Q

How do hormones work?

A

Hormones stimulate a particular part of the body by binding to specific receptors in order to regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body.

41
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

It stimulates and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Therefore, it is the control system that regulates the whole endocrine system.

42
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

It is known as the master gland as it releases hormones that stimulate and control the release of hormones from other glands. It is divided into anterior and posterior lobes which release different hormones.

43
Q

What is the hormone released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and its effect?

A

Oxytocin- uterus contractions during childbirth

44
Q

What is the hormone released from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and its effect?

A

Adrenocortical trophic hormone (ACTH)- stimulates the adrenal cortex and release of cortisol during the stress response

45
Q

What is the hormone released from the pineal gland, and its effect?

A

Melatonin- responsible for important biological rhythms, including the sleep-wake cycle

46
Q

What is the hormone released from the thyroid gland, and its effect?

A

Thyroxine- responsible for regulating metabolism

47
Q

What is the hormone released from the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland, and its effect?

A

Adrenaline and noroadrenaline- the key hormones that are involved in the fight or flight response

48
Q

What is the hormone released from the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, and its effect?

A

Cortisol- stimulates the release of glucose to provide the body with energy while suppressing the immune system

49
Q

What is the hormone released from the ovaries, and its effect?

A

Oestrogen- controls the regulation of the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy

50
Q

What is the hormone released from the testes, and its effect?

A

Testosterone- responsible for the development of male sex characteristics during puberty, whilst also promoting muscle growth

51
Q

What are SSRIs and what do they do?

A

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors
They block the reuptake of serotonin back into the presynaptic neurone, which means’s there are higher levels of seretonin present in the synapse for longer.
They are an effective treatment for depression and OCD as they boost mood by preventing the re-uptake of serotonin.

52
Q

What is the fight or flight response?

A

Fight or flight is the way in which an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor or flee.
It is an evolutionary survival mechanism in response to a threat, after which the body returns to homeostasis.

53
Q

Describe the process of the fight or flight response?

A
  1. The stressor or threat is detected so the person enters a stress response
  2. The amygdala is activated, sending a distress signal to the hypothalamus
  3. The hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland which then activates the sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system
  4. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the sympathomedullary pathway, causing release of adrenaline and noroadrenaline from the adrenal medulla
  5. The pituitary gland secretes ACTH which then stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex
  6. Adrenaline causes a number of physiological changes that prepare the body for fight or flight.
54
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

Responds to a sensory threat and connects sensory input to emotions associated with the fight or flight response. It sends the distress signal to the hypothalamus.

55
Q

What is the sympathomedullary pathway?

A

Enables a short-term response during fight or flight.

56
Q

What is ACTH?

A

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.
It is released from the pituitary gland.

57
Q

What are the effects of adrenaline and noroadrenaline?

A

Increased heart rate
Increased breathing rate
Pupil dilation
Sweat production
Reduction of non-essential functions eg. Digestion

58
Q

Why does heart rate increase during fight or flight?

A

To increase the blood flow to organs and increase the movement of adrenaline around the body

59
Q

Why does breathing rate increase during fight or flight?

A

To increase oxygen intake for respiration

60
Q

Why do pupils dilate during fight or flight?

A

To increase light entry into the eye to enhance vision

61
Q

Why is sweat produced during fight or flight?

A

To regulate body temperature

62
Q

Why are non-essential functions reduced during fight or flight?

A

To increase energy for other essential functions.

63
Q

What is he role of the parasympathetic nervous system after fight or flight?

A

It is activated once the threat has passed to return the body to its resting state.
It works in opposition to the sympathetic nervous system by…
-decreasing heart rate
-decreasing breathing rate
-constricting pupils
-inhibiting sweat production
-restarts non-essential functions eg. Digestion

64
Q

What did Gray (1988) show about the fight or flight response?

A

Suggests that the first response to danger is to freeze alltogether, becoming hyper-vigilant to decide the best course of action.
This shows that our reaction is not limited to the fight or flight response.

65
Q

What did Taylor et al (2000) show about the fight or flight response?

A

Women are more likely to protect offspring and form alliances (tend and befriend).
This shows fight or flight is typically a male response.
It also shows gender bias as earlier research was mainly conducted on men, and generalised to females.

66
Q

What is localisation of function?

A

Localisation of function is the theory that specific functions are localised, and have specific locations within the brain.

67
Q

What is the background for the theory of localisation of function?

A

Franz Gall’s theory of phrenology (the study of the structure of the skull to determine a persons character and capacity) was discredited but undoubtedly influential.
Pierre Flourens used animals to demonstrate that the main divisions of the brain were responsible for different functions.
Since then, the techniques have become more sophisticated, as has our understanding of the functional organisation of the human brain.

68
Q

What are they hemispheres of the brain and what do they do?

A

The brain is divided into the left and right hemispheres.
The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, whereas the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

69
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

A

The motor cortex is at the back of the frontal lobe, so it is responsible for motor processes- body movements
The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher order functions, such as abstract reasoning and logic.
Broca’s area is responsible for speech production.

70
Q

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

A

The auditory area is responsible for auditory processes.
Wernicke’s area is responsible for the understanding of spoken language.

71
Q

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

A

The somatosensory area processes sensations from the skin and muscles, and responds to these sensations.
The amount of somatosensory area associated with a particular part of the body is related to its use and sensitivity.

72
Q

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

A

The visual area is responsible for the processing of visual information.
This includes distance and depth perception, and recognition of objects and faces.

73
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Controls balance and coordination

74
Q

What is the function of the brain stem?

A

Controls involuntary processes

75
Q

How was Broca’s area discovered?

A

It is named after Paul Broca who was a french neurosurgeon
He treated a patient who he referred to as ‘tan’ as this was the only syllable he could express
He was able to understand spoken language, but he could not speak
Broca studied other patients with similar language deficits, and was able to identify the existence of a language centre in the posterior position of the frontal lobe.
He named it Broca’s area

76
Q

What is Broca’s area responsible for?

A

Speech production

77
Q

What does damage to Broca’s area cause?

A

Broca’s aphasia/ expressive aphasia - speech that is slow, laborious and lacking in fluency

78
Q

How was Wernicke’s area discovered?

A

It was named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist
His patients with a lesion in this area could speak but were unable to understand language

79
Q

What is the function of Wernicke’s area?

A

Wernicke’s area is believed to recognise input as language and associate it with meaning to respond.
Therefore, it is responsible for the production of spoken language.

80
Q

What dies damage to Wernicke’s area cause?

A

Damage to Wernicke’s area results in Wernicke’s aphasia/ receptive aphasia, which is characterised by the production of meaningless words as a way of fluent but nonsensical speech.

81
Q

What is hemispheric lateralisation?

A

The idea that the two halves (hemispheres) of the brain are functionally different, and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere over the other.

82
Q

Give an example of a function lateralised to the left/right hemisphere?

A

Language is lateralised to the left hemisphere
Visual motor processing is lateralised to the right hemisphere

83
Q

Give examples of functions that are not lateralised?

A

Vision, somatosensory and motor areas appear in both hemispheres.

84
Q

Explain what is meant by motor areas being contralateral?

A

Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, so the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

85
Q

Explain what is meant by visual areas being contralateral and ipsilateral?

A

Each eye receives light from both the left visual field and the right visual field. The left visual filed of both eyes is connected to the right hemisphere, and the right visual field of both eyes is connected to the left hemisphere.

86
Q

What structure connects the two hemispheres?

A

The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum.
It is a bundle of nerves, allowing information received by one hemisphere to be sent to the other (information in the right hemisphere can be spoken about by the left hemisphere).

87
Q

What is spilt brain research?

A

A series of studies involving individuals who had undergone a surgical procedure to sever the corpus callosum, to separate the two hemispheres. It studies how the hemispheres function when they cannot communicate with each other.

88
Q

Why is the corpus callosum severed?

A

This is a surgical procedure used to reduce epilepsy: prevents the violent electrical activity that accompanies epileptic seizures, crossing from one hemisphere to the other.

89
Q

Who were the first to conduct split brain research?

A

Sperry and Gazzaniga (1967)

90
Q

What was the aim of Sperry’s research?

A

Aimed to examine the extent to which the two hemispheres are specialised for certain functions.

91
Q

What was the procedure for sperry’s research?

A

An image/word is presented into the patient’s left visual field which is processed by the right hemisphere, or the right visual field which is processed by the left hemisphere. The information cannot be shared between the two hemispheres as the corpus callosum has been severed.

92
Q

What were the results of the describe what you see task of sperry’s experiment?

A

When the picture was presented to the right visual field, the participant could describe what was seen.
When the picture was presented to the left visual field, the participant could not describe it, and said there was nothing there.
This is because the image in the right hemisphere cannot be sent to language centres in the left hemisphere.

93
Q

What were the results of the tactile task of sperry’s experiment?

A

When the object was placed in the right hand, the participant could describe verbally what they felt, or select a similar object from a series of objects.
When the object was placed in the left hand, the participant could not describe verbally what they felt, but could select a similar object from a series of objects.
This is because the object processed by the right hemisphere cannot be sent to language centres in the left hemispheres to be described.

94
Q

What were the results of the drawing task of sperry’s experiment?

A

When a picture was presented to the right visual field, the right hand could not draw a clear picture of the image.
When a picture was presented to the left visual field, the left hand could consistently draw a clear picture.
This is because the right hemisphere is superior at visual motor skills.

95
Q

What can we conclude from sperry’s experiments?

A

We can conclude that these observations show how certain functions are lateralised in the brain- specifically how the left hemisphere is responsible for language skills, and the right hemisphere is responsible for visual motor skills.

Psychology (9 decks)

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