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Psychology > 4.2.2 Biopsychology > Flashcards

4.2.2 Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

The nervous system is a body wide network of specialised nerve cells, that collects, processes, and responds to information in the environment, and co-ordinates organs and cells within the body.

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2
Q

What are the 2 functions of the nervous system?

A

-to collect, process and respond to information in the external environment
-to co-ordinate the workings of organs and cells within the body
(Done via the transmission of electrical impulses)

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3
Q

What are the 2 components of the nervous system?

A

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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4
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is the origin of all complex commands and decision-making.

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5
Q

What is the brain?

A

The brain is the centre of all conscious awareness, and is involved in all psychological processes.

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6
Q

What are the 6 areas of the brain and their functions?

A

Occipital lobe- processes visual information
Temporal lobe- processes auditory information
Parietal lobe- integrates information from senses
Frontal lobe- higher order functions eg. Logic

Brain stem- connects the brain to the spinal chord and controls involuntary processes
Cerebellum- controls muscular activity and balance

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7
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A

The spinal cord transfers messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body, and is responsible for reflex actions that do not involve the brain.

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8
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system?

A

The peripheral nervous system is a body wide network of neurones, that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system and the rest of the body.

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9
Q

What neurones are involved in the peripheral nervous system?

A

Sensory neurones- transmit messages to the CNS
Motor neurones- transmit messages away from the CNS

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10
Q

What are the 2 components of the PNS?

A

The somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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11
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

-the primary means of communication between the CNS and the external environment
-made up of sensory receptors which carry information to the CNS, and motor pathways, which allow the brain to control muscle responses
-it is under conscious control

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12
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

-governs the vital functions that take place within the body, playing an important role in homeostasis (maintains internal processes)
-transmits information to and from internal organs
-it is an involuntary process
-consists only of motor pathways, and has 2 main components

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13
Q

What are the 2 components of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

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14
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Involved in responses and physiological changes that prepare the body for fight or flight. The impulses travel from the CNS to organs in the body. Eg. Increased heart rate, breathing rate and blood flow, pupil dilation and inhibited digestion and urination.

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15
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Involved in returning the body to a resting state, and restores normal physiological functioning after a period of stress. Eg. Decreased heart rate, breathing rate and blood flow, pupil contraction and restarts digestion and urination

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16
Q

What are neurones?

A

Neurones are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals. They each have a different function depending on its location in the body and its role within the nervous system

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17
Q

What are the three types of neurones?

A

Sensory, relay and motor neurones

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18
Q

Describe the structure and function of a sensory neurone

A

Long dendrites, short axon
Pseudounipolar- axon is split into two branches
Found in receptors
Carry messages from receptors to the CNS

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19
Q

Describe the structure and function of a relay neurone

A

Many short dendrites and a short axon
Multipolar- one axon but several dendrite
No myelin sheath
Found in the CNS to allow communication between the other two neurones

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20
Q

Describe the structure and function of a motor neurone

A

Short dendrites, long axon
Multipolar- one axon but several dendrites
Found in the CNS and PNS
Transmit impulses to effectors to produce a response

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21
Q

What is the function of dendrites?

A

Receive signals from receptors or other neurones, and carry them towards the cell body

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22
Q

What is the function of the cell body?

A

To contain the genetic material of the cell in the nucleus, so controls its activities

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23
Q

What is the function of the axon?

A

To carry nerve impulses in the form of an electrical signal (action potential) towards the axon terminal
-it is insulated and protected by the myelin sheath
-the nodes of ranvier speed up transmission by forcing impulses to jump across the gaps

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24
Q

What is the function of the axon terminal?

A

To connect the neurone to other neurones and communicate with them over a synapse, through synaptic transmission
-sometimes they connect motor neurones directly to an effector

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25
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The gap between two neurones

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26
Q

In what form are impulses transmitted across the synapse?

A

Chemical (neurotransmitters)

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27
Q

What is the charge of a neurone at rest?

A

Negatively charged

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28
Q

Describe the process of synaptic transmission

A

When a neurone is at rest, the inside of the cell is negatively charged.
When it is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell momentarily becomes positively charged.
This causes an action potential to occur, creating an electrical impulse in the neurone, which travels down the axon.
When the electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmitters are released from vesicles into the synapse.
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the post-synaptic terminal, which stimulates the receptors.
For the action potential to be passed onto the next neurone, the electrical charge needs to pass a threshold.
Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, so make the charge more positive (depolarisation). Whereas some are inhibitory, so and make the charge more negative (hyperpolarisation).
The excitatory and inhibitory effects of the binding neurotransmitters are summed through the process of summation.
If the net-effect is inhibitory, the neurone will not fire, but if it is excitatory, the neurone will fire.
The neurotransmitters detach and are reabsorbed by the presynaptic terminal to be released again (re-uptake), or undergo enzymatic degradation.

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29
Q

What are neurotransmitters released from?

A

Vesicles in the presynaptic terminal

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30
Q

What is the effect of excitatory neurotransmitters?

A

They make the charge more positive, so have a depolarising effect.

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31
Q

What is the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A

They make the charge more negative, so have a hyperpolarising effect.

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32
Q

What is summation?

A

The sum of the excitatory and inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters, to calculate the net-effect on the next neurone.

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33
Q

What happens to neurotransmitters when they detach from the receptors?

A

Re-uptake or enzymatic degradation

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34
Q

How do neurotransmitters travel across the synapse?

A

By diffusion

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35
Q

Describe the process which determines whether a neurone will fire or not

A

Neurones at rest are negatively charged compared to their surroundings.
For it to fire (trigger an action potential), it must momentarily become positively charged/ depolarised.
This means the excitatory effects of neurotransmitters binding to the next neurone must reach a threshold- after summation has occurred.
Excitatory neurones have a depolarising effect, known as EPSPs/ excitatory postsynaptic potentials: they increase the chance of the neurone firing
Inhibitory neurones have a hyperpolarising effect known as IPSPs/ inhibitory postsynaptic potentials: they decrease the chance of the neurone firing.

If the net-effect of the binding neurotransmitters is inhibitory, then the post-synaptic neurone will not fire.
If the net-effect of the binding neurotransmitters is excitatory, then the post-synaptic neurone will fire (action potential triggered).

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36
Q

Why do neurones only transmit information in one direction?

A

The synaptic vesicles that contain the neurotransmitter are only released from the presynaptic terminal.
The receptors that detect neurotransmitters are only present on the postsynaptic terminal.
It is the binding of the neurotransmitter that enables information to be passed on.

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37
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

A network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages known as hormones into the bloodstream. It works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body.

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38
Q

What are hormones?

A

Hormones circulate in the bloodstream and travel to target organs where they produce a specific effect. Each gland produces and secretes different hormones.

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39
Q

Name the main glands in the endocrine system?

A

Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Ovaries (in females)
Testes (in males)

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40
Q

How do hormones work?

A

Hormones stimulate a particular part of the body by binding to specific receptors in order to regulate the activity of cells or organs in the body.

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41
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

It stimulates and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Therefore, it is the control system that regulates the whole endocrine system.

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42
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

It is known as the master gland as it releases hormones that stimulate and control the release of hormones from other glands. It is divided into anterior and posterior lobes which release different hormones.

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43
Q

What is the hormone released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and its effect?

A

Oxytocin- uterus contractions during childbirth

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44
Q

What is the hormone released from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and its effect?

A

Adrenocortical trophic hormone (ACTH)- stimulates the adrenal cortex and release of cortisol during the stress response

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45
Q

What is the hormone released from the pineal gland, and its effect?

A

Melatonin- responsible for important biological rhythms, including the sleep-wake cycle

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46
Q

What is the hormone released from the thyroid gland, and its effect?

A

Thyroxine- responsible for regulating metabolism

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47
Q

What is the hormone released from the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland, and its effect?

A

Adrenaline and noroadrenaline- the key hormones that are involved in the fight or flight response

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48
Q

What is the hormone released from the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, and its effect?

A

Cortisol- stimulates the release of glucose to provide the body with energy while suppressing the immune system

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49
Q

What is the hormone released from the ovaries, and its effect?

A

Oestrogen- controls the regulation of the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle and pregnancy

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50
Q

What is the hormone released from the testes, and its effect?

A

Testosterone- responsible for the development of male sex characteristics during puberty, whilst also promoting muscle growth

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51
Q

What are SSRIs and what do they do?

A

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors
They block the reuptake of serotonin back into the presynaptic neurone, which means’s there are higher levels of seretonin present in the synapse for longer.
They are an effective treatment for depression and OCD as they boost mood by preventing the re-uptake of serotonin.

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52
Q

What is the fight or flight response?

A

Fight or flight is the way in which an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor or flee.
It is an evolutionary survival mechanism in response to a threat, after which the body returns to homeostasis.

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53
Q

Describe the process of the fight or flight response?

A
  1. The stressor or threat is detected so the person enters a stress response
  2. The amygdala is activated, sending a distress signal to the hypothalamus
  3. The hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland which then activates the sympathetic nervous system and endocrine system
  4. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the sympathomedullary pathway, causing release of adrenaline and noroadrenaline from the adrenal medulla
  5. The pituitary gland secretes ACTH which then stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex
  6. Adrenaline causes a number of physiological changes that prepare the body for fight or flight.
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54
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

Responds to a sensory threat and connects sensory input to emotions associated with the fight or flight response. It sends the distress signal to the hypothalamus.

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55
Q

What is the sympathomedullary pathway?

A

Enables a short-term response during fight or flight.

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56
Q

What is ACTH?

A

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.
It is released from the pituitary gland.

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57
Q

What are the effects of adrenaline and noroadrenaline?

A

Increased heart rate
Increased breathing rate
Pupil dilation
Sweat production
Reduction of non-essential functions eg. Digestion

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58
Q

Why does heart rate increase during fight or flight?

A

To increase the blood flow to organs and increase the movement of adrenaline around the body

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59
Q

Why does breathing rate increase during fight or flight?

A

To increase oxygen intake for respiration

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60
Q

Why do pupils dilate during fight or flight?

A

To increase light entry into the eye to enhance vision

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61
Q

Why is sweat produced during fight or flight?

A

To regulate body temperature

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62
Q

Why are non-essential functions reduced during fight or flight?

A

To increase energy for other essential functions.

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63
Q

What is he role of the parasympathetic nervous system after fight or flight?

A

It is activated once the threat has passed to return the body to its resting state.
It works in opposition to the sympathetic nervous system by…
-decreasing heart rate
-decreasing breathing rate
-constricting pupils
-inhibiting sweat production
-restarts non-essential functions eg. Digestion

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64
Q

What did Gray (1988) show about the fight or flight response?

A

Suggests that the first response to danger is to freeze alltogether, becoming hyper-vigilant to decide the best course of action.
This shows that our reaction is not limited to the fight or flight response.

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65
Q

What did Taylor et al (2000) show about the fight or flight response?

A

Women are more likely to protect offspring and form alliances (tend and befriend).
This shows fight or flight is typically a male response.
It also shows gender bias as earlier research was mainly conducted on men, and generalised to females.

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66
Q

What is localisation of function?

A

Localisation of function is the theory that specific functions are localised, and have specific locations within the brain.

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67
Q

What is the background for the theory of localisation of function?

A

Franz Gall’s theory of phrenology (the study of the structure of the skull to determine a persons character and capacity) was discredited but undoubtedly influential.
Pierre Flourens used animals to demonstrate that the main divisions of the brain were responsible for different functions.
Since then, the techniques have become more sophisticated, as has our understanding of the functional organisation of the human brain.

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68
Q

What are they hemispheres of the brain and what do they do?

A

The brain is divided into the left and right hemispheres.
The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, whereas the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

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69
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

A

The motor cortex is at the back of the frontal lobe, so it is responsible for motor processes- body movements
The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher order functions, such as abstract reasoning and logic.
Broca’s area is responsible for speech production.

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70
Q

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

A

The auditory area is responsible for auditory processes.
Wernicke’s area is responsible for the understanding of spoken language.

71
Q

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

A

The somatosensory area processes sensations from the skin and muscles, and responds to these sensations.
The amount of somatosensory area associated with a particular part of the body is related to its use and sensitivity.

72
Q

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

A

The visual area is responsible for the processing of visual information.
This includes distance and depth perception, and recognition of objects and faces.

73
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Controls balance and coordination

74
Q

What is the function of the brain stem?

A

Controls involuntary processes

75
Q

How was Broca’s area discovered?

A

It is named after Paul Broca who was a french neurosurgeon
He treated a patient who he referred to as ‘tan’ as this was the only syllable he could express
He was able to understand spoken language, but he could not speak
Broca studied other patients with similar language deficits, and was able to identify the existence of a language centre in the posterior position of the frontal lobe.
He named it Broca’s area

76
Q

What is Broca’s area responsible for?

A

Speech production

77
Q

What does damage to Broca’s area cause?

A

Broca’s aphasia/ expressive aphasia - speech that is slow, laborious and lacking in fluency

78
Q

How was Wernicke’s area discovered?

A

It was named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist
His patients with a lesion in this area could speak but were unable to understand language

79
Q

What is the function of Wernicke’s area?

A

Wernicke’s area is believed to recognise input as language and associate it with meaning to respond.
Therefore, it is responsible for the production of spoken language.

80
Q

What dies damage to Wernicke’s area cause?

A

Damage to Wernicke’s area results in Wernicke’s aphasia/ receptive aphasia, which is characterised by the production of meaningless words as a way of fluent but nonsensical speech.

81
Q

What is hemispheric lateralisation?

A

The idea that the two halves (hemispheres) of the brain are functionally different, and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere over the other.

82
Q

Give an example of a function lateralised to the left/right hemisphere?

A

Language is lateralised to the left hemisphere
Visual motor processing is lateralised to the right hemisphere

83
Q

Give examples of functions that are not lateralised?

A

Vision, somatosensory and motor areas appear in both hemispheres.

84
Q

Explain what is meant by motor areas being contralateral?

A

Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, so the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

85
Q

Explain what is meant by visual areas being contralateral and ipsilateral?

A

Each eye receives light from both the left visual field and the right visual field. The left visual filed of both eyes is connected to the right hemisphere, and the right visual field of both eyes is connected to the left hemisphere.

86
Q

What structure connects the two hemispheres?

A

The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum.
It is a bundle of nerves, allowing information received by one hemisphere to be sent to the other (information in the right hemisphere can be spoken about by the left hemisphere).

87
Q

What is spilt brain research?

A

A series of studies involving individuals who had undergone a surgical procedure to sever the corpus callosum, to separate the two hemispheres. It studies how the hemispheres function when they cannot communicate with each other.

88
Q

Why is the corpus callosum severed?

A

This is a surgical procedure used to reduce epilepsy: prevents the violent electrical activity that accompanies epileptic seizures, crossing from one hemisphere to the other.

89
Q

Who were the first to conduct split brain research?

A

Sperry and Gazzaniga (1967)

90
Q

What was the aim of Sperry’s research?

A

Aimed to examine the extent to which the two hemispheres are specialised for certain functions.

91
Q

What was the procedure for sperry’s research?

A

An image/word is presented into the patient’s left visual field which is processed by the right hemisphere, or the right visual field which is processed by the left hemisphere. The information cannot be shared between the two hemispheres as the corpus callosum has been severed.

92
Q

What were the results of the describe what you see task of sperry’s experiment?

A

When the picture was presented to the right visual field, the participant could describe what was seen.
When the picture was presented to the left visual field, the participant could not describe it, and said there was nothing there.
This is because the image in the right hemisphere cannot be sent to language centres in the left hemisphere.

93
Q

What were the results of the tactile task of sperry’s experiment?

A

When the object was placed in the right hand, the participant could describe verbally what they felt, or select a similar object from a series of objects.
When the object was placed in the left hand, the participant could not describe verbally what they felt, but could select a similar object from a series of objects.
This is because the object processed by the right hemisphere cannot be sent to language centres in the left hemispheres to be described.

94
Q

What were the results of the drawing task of sperry’s experiment?

A

When a picture was presented to the right visual field, the right hand could not draw a clear picture of the image.
When a picture was presented to the left visual field, the left hand could consistently draw a clear picture.
This is because the right hemisphere is superior at visual motor skills.

95
Q

What can we conclude from sperry’s experiments?

A

We can conclude that these observations show how certain functions are lateralised in the brain- specifically how the left hemisphere is responsible for language skills, and the right hemisphere is responsible for visual motor skills.

96
Q

what is functional recovery?

A

functional recovery is when brain functions are moved from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas of the brain after trauma.

96
Q

what is brain plasticity?

A

brain plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience, which plays an important role in brain development and behaviour.

97
Q

how do life experiences lead to plasticity?

A

Nerve pathways that are used more frequently develop stronger connections, but neurones that are not used eventually die.
This means the brain is able to constantly adapt to a changing environment.
This also occurs through the natural decline in cognitive functioning with age.
This process is known as synaptic pruning.

98
Q

What evidence is there that life experiences lead to plasticity?

A

Boyke et al found evidence of brain plasticity in 60 year olds when taught how to juggle. They found increases in grey matter in the visual cortex, and when practises stopped, then changes reversed.
Maguire found that London taxi drivers had significantly more volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus that a matched control group. This is due to the learning experience of the roads in London for a test.
Maguire also found positive correlation in the time spent as a taxi driver and the amount of structural difference

99
Q

What evidence is there that playing video games leads to brain plasticity?

A

Kuhn et al found a significant increase in grey matter in various brains of a video game training group, that was not evident in a control group. The video game had resulted in news synaptic connections in brain areas involved in spatial navigation, strategic planning, and working memory and motor performance.

99
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how does playing video games lead to brain plasticity?

A

Video games have many different complex cognitive and motor demands.

100
Q

Ho does meditation cause brain plasticity?

A

It can alter the inner workings of the brain.

100
Q

What evidence is there that meditation leads to brain plasticity?

A

Davidson et al compared Tibetan meditation practitioners with a control group who had never meditated previously. When meditating, there was a much greater gamma wave activity in the monks (coordinates neurone activity). This gives evidence that meditation changes the workings of the brain in the short term, and may produce permanent changes as the greater gamma wave activity was recorded even before they began to meditate.

100
Q

what does brain trauma include?

A

physical trauma: blows or wounds to the skull or brain
cerebral haemorrhage: burst blood vessel
cerebral ischaemia: blocked blood vessel
viral or bacterial infection: destroys brain tissue

101
Q

When does functional recovery occur?

A

It can occur quickly after trauma (spontaneous recovery), or take several weeks at which point the individual may require rehabilitative therapy for further recovery.

102
Q

Give evidence for functional recovery?

A

researchers studied cases in stroke victims who were able to regain functioning and recovered as the brain rewired itself over time so that some level of function was able to be regained.

103
Q

Describe neuronal unmasking

A

There are dormant synapses in the brain, which are synaptic connections that exist anatomically but their function is blocked.
When brain areas are damaged, the rate of input to these synapses increases, which can open (unmask) them.
This can open connections to regions of the brain that are not normally activated, creating a lateral spread of activation which gives way to the development of new structures.
Therefore the brain rewires and organises itself by forming new synaptic connections.
This occurs via axonal sprouting, denervation sensitivity, and regeneration of homologous areas.

104
Q

what is axonal sprouting?

A

growth of new nerve endings which connect with undamaged nerve cells to form new pathways.

105
Q

what is denervation sensitivity?

A

when axons that do similar jobs become aroused to a higher level to compensate for those that are lost.

106
Q

what are stem cells?

A

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to differentiate into specialised cells.

107
Q

How can stem cells be used for brain recovery?

A

Stem cells can specialise into nerve cells, so can take on their characteristics and functions. This could treat brain damage caused by injury or neurodegenerative disorders.

108
Q

What are three ways stem cells can be used for recovery?

A

implanting stem cells into the brain to directly replace dead cells.
transplanted cells could secrete growth factors that rescue the injured cells.
transplanted cells form a neural network which links an uninjured brain site where new stem cells are made, with the damaged region of the brain.

109
Q

what is a post mortem?

A

An investigation into the damaged brain after the person has died.
This allows for the identification of abnormality in areas of the brain, so damage found can be related to symptoms or behaviours shown by the person when they were alive.
It often involves comparison with a neurotypical brain in order to ascertain the extent of the difference.

110
Q

What are the strengths of post mortems?

A

They allow for a more detailed examination of the brain than would be possible with non-invasive scanning techniques. The brain can be studied an an individual cellular level to examine deeper regions.
The person has usually died as a result of a natural occurring event such as a car accident etc. so a living brain isn’t deliberately damaged.
They have contributed significantly to our understanding of localisation of function and psychological disorders
eg. Broca’s post mortem of tan identified Broca’s area and Iversen used post mortems on schizophrenic patients to identify that they had excess dopamine in their limbic systems.

111
Q

What are the weaknesses of post mortems?

A

The damage has not been controlled in any way and therefore it is not possible to compare how the person behaved before and after the damage, so there is no way to establish causation from these studies.
There are difficulties in obtaining human brains especially if the known deficits are particularly rare.
Findings may lack validity due to small sample sizes and also due to neuronal changes during and after death.

112
Q

what is an fMRI?

A

Measuring changes in brain activity whilst a person performs a task, by measuring the changes in blood flow to particular regions of the brain, to indicate neuronal activity in those areas.
This is because a more active brain area has an increased oxygen demand, so blood flow increases to deliver this.
Researchers are able to produce 3D maps showing which areas of the brain are involved in a particular mental activity.

113
Q

what are the strengths of fMRIs?

A

Non-invasive and does not use radiation, among it risk-free.
Produces images which have good spatial resolution, so provides a clear picture of how brain activity is localised.
Provides a moving picture of brain activity and so patterns of activity can be compared, rather than just the physiology of the brain.
Cognitive neuroscience is heavily dependent on fMRI and virtually every cognitive process has been studied, such as attention, memory, and language processing.
eg. Gallese used fMRI scanning to identify the anterior cingulate cortex and inferior frontal cortex as being involved with experiencing the emotions of others.

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Q

What are the weaknesses of fMRIs?

A

Poor temporal resolution because there is a 5 second time lag behind the image on the screen and the initial firing of neuronal activity.
FMRIs measure changes in blood flow so they do not offer a direct measure of the neural activity in particular brain areas.
It attempts to focus on localised activity in the brain whereas many critics would argue that communication among the different regions is most critical to mental function.
FMRI research is expensive as it requires trained operators, leading to reduced sample sizes which negatively impact the validity of the research.

130
Q

What are the weaknesses of fMRIs?

A

Poor temporal resolution because there is a 5 second time lag behind the image on the screen and the initial firing of neuronal activity.
FMRIs measure changes in blood flow so they do not offer a direct measure of the neural activity in particular brain areas.
It attempts to focus on localised activity in the brain whereas many critics would argue that communication among the different regions is most critical to mental function.
FMRI research is expensive as it requires trained operators, leading to reduced sample sizes which negatively impact the validity of the research.

131
Q

What are EEGs?

A

Electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity directly below where they are placed.
It is a recording of general brain activity usually linked to states such as sleep and arousal.
The resulting representation of the electrode signals graphed over time is called an EEG (electroencephalogram).
Its main function is to indicate whether brain wave activity is rhythmic or not, as arrhythmic patterns of activity may indicate neurological disorders
eg. The EEGs of people with epilepsy show spikes of electrical activity.

132
Q

What are the strengths of EEGs?

A

Provide a safe way of measuring brain activity as there is no surgery or invasive process.
Provides a recording of the brain’s activity in real time and has high temporal resolution (one millisecond).
It is invaluable in the diagnosis opf conditions such as epilepsy.
It is relatively cheap top conduct so can be widely used in research.
It has contributed to our understanding of the stages involved in sleep and of sleep disorders.
Eg. Dement and Kleitman used EEGs to identify the different stages of sleep.

133
Q

What are the weaknesses of EEGs?

A

They have poor spatial resolution so lack precision in pinpointing the exact source of neural activity. Researchers cannot distinguish between activities originating in different but closely adjacent regions of the brain.
It can only detect activity in superficial regions of the brain so they cannot reveal what is going on in deeper regions such as the hypothalamus.
Output from the equipment needs to be interpreted so a level of expertise is required.

134
Q

What are ERPs?

A

Electrodes are placed on the scalp and measure very small voltage changes in the brain that are triggered by specific events or stimuli.
Many presentations of the stimulus are required and these responses are averaged together. Any extraneous neural activity that is not related to the specific stimulus will not occur consistently, whereas activity linked to the stimulus will.
ERPs can be divided into two categories: sensory ERPs when the waves occur within then first 100 milliseconds after presentation of the stimulus, and cognitive ERPs when the waves occur after 100 milliseconds has passed since presentation of the stimulus.
Sensory ERPs reflect an initial response to the physical characteristics of the stimulus, and cognitive ERPs demonstrate information processing.

135
Q

What are the strengths of ERPs?

A

It is non-invasive and does not use radiation, so it is risk-free.
They have a good temporal resolution.
They offer a direct measure of neural activity.
As they provide a continuous measure of processing in response to a particular stimulus, it makes it possible to determine how processing is affected by a specific environmental manipulation.
It is relatively cheap to conduct so can be widely used in research.

136
Q

What are the weaknesses of ERPs?

A

They have poor spatial resolution as it lacks p[recision in pinpointing the exact source of neural activity. Researchers cannot distinguish between activities originating in different but closely adjacent regions of the brain.
To establish pure data, background noise and extraneous material must be completely eliminated, which can be difficult to achieve.
Output from the equipment needs to be interpreted so there is a level of expertise required.

137
Q

What are biological rhythms?

A

Biological rhythms are cyclical changes in the way that biological systems behave.

138
Q

Why have biological rhythms evolved?

A

The environment in which organisms live has cyclic changes eg. Daylight and darkness

139
Q

What are circadian rhythms?

A

Biological rhythms that are subject to a 24 hour cycle and regulate a number of body processes.
They optimise an organism’s physiology and behaviour to best meet the varying demands of the day and night cycle.

140
Q

Describe how circadian rhythms are controlled?

A

Our circadian rhythms are driven by our body clocks.
They are found in all of our body cells and are synchronised by the master circadian pacemaker- the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN).
This pacemaker must constantly be reset so that our bodies are in synchrony with the outside world.
This is known as an endogenous pacemaker.
Light provides the primary input to this system, which sets the body clock to the correct time in a process called photoentrainment.
Light sensitive cells in the eye act as brightness detectors and send direct messages about light levels to the SCN.
This information is used to coordinate the activity of the entire circadian system eg. Sleep-wake cycles and core body temperature.

141
Q

Describe how the sleep wake cycle is controlled by a circadian rhythm

A

The circadian rhythm dictates when we should be sleeping and when we should be awake.
Light and darkness are the external signals (exogenous zeitgebers) that determine when we feel the need to sleep and wake up.
There are also internal signals (endogenous pacemakers), the biological clock known as the SCN, but these can be reset by exogenous zeitgebers.

Sleep and wakefulness are also under homeostatic control, as homeostasis tells us that the need for sleep is increasing because of the amount of energy used up during wakefulness.
The homeostatic drive for sleep increases as it becomes darker, yet the internal circadian clock is free-running, so will maintain a cycle of about 24 hours regardless of external factors.

142
Q

What are ultradian rhythms?

A

Biological rhythms that have a frequency of more than one cycle in 24 hours.

143
Q

What type of rhythm do the stages of sleep follow?

A

Ultradian rhythm
Consists of 5 stages that make up a typical night’s sleep, and follows a pattern of alternating REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM sleep (non-rapid eye movement).

144
Q

Describe the sleep cycle

A

Follows a cycle of alternating REM and NREM sleep.
Stages 1-4 make up NREM sleep, and stage 5 makes up REM sleep.
This cycle repeats itself about every 90 minutes throughout the night, with different stages having different durations.
A complete cycle consists of a progression through the 4 stages of NREM sleep before entering a final stage of REM sleep.
Each stage of sleep is characterised by the levels of brainwave activity that can be monitored by an EEG.

145
Q

Describe stage 1 and 2 of the sleep cycle

A

Light sleep
Brain waves are alpha waves
Random changes in pattern occur in stage 2 called sleep spindles

146
Q

Describe stage 3 and 4 of the sleep cycle

A

Deep sleep
Brain waves are delta waves

147
Q

Describe stage 5 of the sleep cycle

A

REM sleep
Brain waves are theta waves

148
Q

What is the BRAC cycle and who suggested it?

A

Kleitman suggested that a 90 minute ultradian cycle exists during walking hours, called the BRAC.
This stands for basic rest activity cycle and is characterised by a period of alertness followed by a spell of physiological fatigue. Eg. People find it very difficult to work or concentrate for more than 90 minutes.

149
Q

What is an infradian rhythm? And give examples

A

Biological rhythms that have a frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours.
The cycles may last weeks, months, or occur annually.
It includes the female menstrual cycle and seasonal affective disorder.

150
Q

What is an infradian rhythm? And give examples

A

Biological rhythms that have a frequency of less than one cycle in 24 hours.
The cycles may last weeks, months, or occur annually.
It includes the female menstrual cycle and seasonal affective disorder.

151
Q

What is the menstrual cycle?

A

The female reproductive cycle that lasts around 28 days.
It is an endogenous system sand is regulated by hormones, yet there is evidence that suggests it may be influenced by y exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.

152
Q

What is SAD?

A

Seasonal affective disorder
A depressive disorder which has a seasonal pattern of onset.
It is triggered by decreased hours of daylight in the winter months.
This is because more melatonin is produced which has a knock on effect on serotonin (links to depression).

153
Q

Define temporal resolution

A

The ability to see the brain responding in real time and without delay

154
Q

Define spatial resolution

A

The ability to investigate specific and isolated parts of the brain

155
Q

Define invasiveness

A

Whether the technique causes harm or discomfort to the patient

156
Q

Define implications

A

Whether the technique has been used to help us understand or treat human conditions

157
Q

What are endogenous pacemakers?

A

Endogenous pacemakers are internal clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms.

158
Q

What are endogenous pacemakers likely to be the product of?

A

Inherited genetic mechanisms
They are internal as endogenous means that the origins are within the organism.

159
Q

Describe what the SCN is?

A

The Suprechiasmatic nucleus
It is a tiny bundle of nerve cells that is located in the hypothalamus of each hemisphere of the brain.
It is the main endogenous pacemakers in mammals, and plays a role in maintaining circadian rhythms.

160
Q

How does the SCN control our internal body clocks?

A

Neurones within the SCN synchronise with each other so that target neurones in sites elsewhere in the body receive time-coordinated signals.

161
Q

Why do peripheral clocks rely on the SCN?

A

They cannot maintain a circadian rhythm alone for a long period of time, so rely on the SCN in order to be able to do this.

162
Q

How does the SCN reset when external light levels change?

A

The SCN has a built-in circadian rhythm which only needs resetting when external light levels change.
The SCN receives information about light levels via the optic nerve (even when eyes are closed as light penetrates the eyelids).
If the sun rises earlier than the previous day, then the morning light automatically adjusts the clock to put its rhythm in tune with the outside world (entrainment).

163
Q

How does the SCN control the pineal gland?

A

The SCN sends signals to the pineal gland that regulate the manufacture and secretion of melatonin via a neural pathway.
It increases production of melatonin at night, and decreases it in the morning as light levels increase.

164
Q

What is the role of melatonin in the sleep wake cycle?

A

Melatonin induces sleep by inhibiting the brain mechanisms that promote wakefulness.

165
Q

What are exogenous zeitgebers?

A

Exogenous zeitgebers are external factors that affect or entrain our biological rhythms.
The most important example for most organisms is light.

166
Q

How do exogenous pacemakers entrain biological rhythms?

A

The free-running cycle of the endogenous pacemakers is altered by exogenous zeitgebers, so there is an interaction of internal and external factors

167
Q

Explain the role of light in altering the sleep-wake cycle?

A

Light is able to reset the SCN, as SCN receptors are sensitive to changes in light levels during the day, and so use this information to synchronise the activity of the body’s organs and glands.
Therefore light resents the internal biological clock each day to keep it on a 24 hour cycle.

168
Q

Give evidence for how social cues act as exogenous zeitgebers?

A

Social stimuli may also have a role as exogenous zeitgebers eg. Mealtimes
Ascoff et al showed that individuals are likely to compensate for the absence of light by responding to social zeitgebers instead.

Psychology (11 decks)

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