4.2.3.1 Scientific Processes Flashcards
What is an empirical method?
When information is gained from direct observation, so it can be certain that claims of knowledge are true
What are research methods?
Techniques used to gather data about the mind and behaviour
What is the experimental method of research?
A research method that is used to identify the effect on one variable on other variables, known as cause and effect. They must follow scientific methods and be a true experiment.
What is falsifiability?
The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it allows the possibility of being proved untrue
What is a true experiment?
A true experiment has a control condition and an experimental co Dionysus, and participants must be randomly assigned to each one, so the researcher can make fair comparisons.
Give examples of research methods
-experiments
-observations
-survey
-interview
-correlations
-case studies
What is the experimental condition?
The condition in which there has been researcher manipulation to see if a change in behaviour has occurred.
What is the control condition?
Provides a baseline measure of behaviour without any experimental treatment.
What is the independent variable?
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher, or changes naturally.
What are control variables?
When all other variables that might potentially effect the DV are kept constant, so the researcher can be confident that any change in the DV was due to only the IV.
-this achieves internal validity
What are extraneous variables?
Variables that may effect the dependant variable if not controlled.
What is the dependant variable?
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any changes to h the DV should be due to changes in the IV only.
What is operationalisation?
Clearly defining variables, and making them specific, so that they can be measured.
-this allows psychologists to communicate their findings to others, and others to replicate their experiments
What is an aim?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate and the purpose of the study. Aims tend to be developed from theories.
What is an alternate/experimental hypothesis?
Predicts a significant difference or relationship between the two variables. It can be directional or non -directional.
What is a hypothesis?
A precise and testable statement that states the relationship between the variables in the investigation. It predicts the outcome of the study.
What is a null hypothesis?
Predicts that there will be no significant difference or relationship between the two variables.
What is a directional hypothesis?
-also known as a one-tailed hypothesis
It states the direction of the difference or relationship, to identify the sort of relationship that may be seen.
When would a directional hypothesis be used?
When previous research indicates the probable direction of the results.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
-also known as a two-tailed hypothesis
It does not state the direction of the difference or relationship.
When would a non-directional hypothesis be used?
When there has been no previous research to suggest what direction the research will go in, or previous research has been contradictory.
What are the 5 key steps in writing a hypothesis?
-identify the IV and the DV (what is being manipulated and what is being measured?)
-create a comparison of the experimental conditions to show how the IV is being manipulated
-operationalise the DV to state how it is being measured
-decide whether to write a directional or non-directional hypothesis
-put all of the information together in a testable written statement
Write a non-directional hypothesis to suggest whether age affects short-term memory
There will be a significant difference in the short term memory, measured by a score out of 10 on a word memory test, in participants who are older in years, compared to those who are younger in years.
Write a directional hypothesis for the effect of higher temperatures on the growth of tomato plants
Tomato plants that grow in higher temperatures of 25c will grow a greater number of millimetres per day, than tomato plants that grow in lower temperatures of 15c.
Write a null hypothesis for the effect of lack of sleep on reaction time?
There will be no significant difference in the reaction time, measured in milliseconds by the ruler drop test, of participants who have slept for a greater number of hours the previous night, compared to those who have slept for a fewer number of hours the previous night.
What are experimental designs?
Refers to the different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised, in relation to experimental conditions.
Describe how independent groups work
-different participants are tested in each condition of the experiment
-one group is assigned to the control condition, and one to the experimental condition
-they are compared to identify differences in the dependant variable
-random allocation decides which participants go to which condition
Strengths of independent groups?
-simplest design to operate
-eliminates order effects
-reduces demand characteristics
-same test can be used for both groups
What are order effects?
Include practise, boredom and fatigue, and are caused by people taking part in more than one trial.
What are demand characteristics?
Occur when participants have guessed the aim of the experiment
(Please you and screw you effect)
Weaknesses of independent groups?
-weak control of participant variables and individual differences, so random allocation needs to be used
-it is uneconomical with participants as it requires more.
What are individual differences?
Variables in the participants in each condition, that may contribute to the change in the DV, therefore becoming extraneous variables.
What are the benefits of random allocation?
-removes researcher bias
-removes participant bias
-increases validity
Strengths of repeated measures?
-eliminates the effects of individual differences as same participants take part in both conditions
-requires fewer participants
Weaknesses of repeated measures?
-creates order effects
-requires counterbalancing so is more complicated
-risk of demand characteristics (please u and screw u)
Describe how a repeated measures experiment works?
-participants take part in all of the conditions
-their performance in each condition is compared
-the order at which they carry out the conditions should be randomised
What is counterbalancing?
-half of the participants start in one condition, and the rest start in the other.
-this controls the impact of order effects, as it allows them to be distributed evenly across both conditions.
Describe how a matched pairs experiment works
-each participant is matched with another participant on characteristics which are considered relevant to the experiment eg. Age or intelligence
-one participant from each pair is allocated at random to each condition
-this process assumes they are similar enough to be treated s one person
Weaknesses of matched pairs?
-time consuming, and so uneconomical
-complete matching is not possible
-if one participant drops out, the nature of the study means that two participants are lost
What is an extraneous variable?
A variable that is not the independent variable, but may affect the dependant variable if not controlled. These variables do not systematically vary with the IV, so we cannot be sure if it has affected the DV.
How do psychologists aim to control extraneous variables?
It is very important that these variables are controlled, to be sure that it is the IV that affects the DV. Psychologists aim to identify them at the start of the study so that they can control them.
What is a confounding variable?
A variable which has affected the DV, and therefore the outcome of the study. These systematically vary with the IV, so we can be sure that it has affected the DV. They aren’t often recognised until critical inspection by others later on.
What are participant variables?
Refer to the different characteristics of participants which may affect the outcome of an experiment eg. Age or intelligence
What are situational variables?
Refer to factors in the environment which may affect the outcome of an experiment eg. Time of day or temperature. These become even more problematic when only one of the groups is affected.
What are demand characteristics?
Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they find themselves in, and act accordingly.
-trying to guess the purpose of the research and acting in a way they feel is helpful
-trying to guess the purpose of the research and acting in a way they feel is unhelpful
-evaluation apprehension- nerves due to the research setting
-displaying social desirability bias to be seen as favourable
Why are demand characteristics problematic?
They do not represent participants normal behaviours and actions outside of the research situation, which means the data becomes invalid. Therefore, well-designed research aims to minimise their effect.
How do psychologists minimise the effects of demand characteristics?
By using the single blind procedure
-participants are not informed about the condition they are placed in and aren’t aware often the aim of the research, as not to seek clues
-however this raises ethical issues of deception and informed consent
What are investigator effects?
The effects of the investigator’s conscious or unconscious behaviour on the research outcome.
-It is difficult for the investigator to remain impartial, as they have expectations and personal characteristics that may affect the behaviour of participants eg. Unconsciously designing the study to produce the desired outcome, or misinterpreting findings to support the original hypothesis.
How do psychologists reduce investigator effects?
-Double blind procedure: neither the investigator nor the participants know the aim or hypothesis of the study
-Computerised testing: participants interact with a computer rather than a human investigator. It also means data can be stored on the computer, making it harder to mis-record the information from participants.
What is randomisation?
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of researcher or investigator bias when designing materials, and deciding the order of experimental conditions. It ensures the investigator has no control over certain key features.
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study. This includes environment, instructions and experience.
What does the type of experiment depend on?
How the IV changes, and under what circumstances it does so.
Describe the key features of a lab experiment
-carried out in highly controlled environments (not always in a lab)
-the researcher manipulates the independent variable and records the effects on the dependant variable
-this gives the researcher control of the participants and conditions, which means extraneous variables can be controlled
-can use random allocation, so is considered a ‘true’ experiment
What are the advantages of laboratory experiments?
-easy to set up the experiment and conditions in order to achieve strict control over extraneous and confounding variables, so gives it high internal validity to establish cause and effect
-easily replicable, so can be replicated by others to check the consistency of findings
-precise and quantitative data can be found
What are the disadvantages of laboratory experiments?
-low ecological validity due to the artificial setting
-low mundane realism due to the tasks not reflecting everyday experiences
-demand characteristics as the lab could lead to participants behaving artificially
What are the ethical issues that can occur in laboratory experiments?
-social pressure: the formal situation and authority of the experimenter may pressure the participants into behaving uncharacteristically
-right to withdrawal: participants should be informed of this at the start, but may be reluctant to exercise their rights in fear of disrupting the study
Describe the key features of a field experiment
-the researcher manipulates the independent variable in a natural and more everyday setting
-the experiment takes place in the participants’ usual environment- where they would normally be at the time
-used when it is important that the studied behaviour is in a natural environment
What are the advantages of a field experiment?
-high ecological validity due to being in a natural environment
-reduced demand characteristics as participants are less aware of it
-good mundane realism due to studies being of real life behaviour or activity
What are the disadvantages of a field experiment?
-less control of extraneous and confounding variables which decreases internal validity
-less replicable due to confounding variables
-ethical issues as participants are unaware that the experiment is taking place, so cannot exercise their right to withdrawal or give verbal consent.
Describe the key features of natural experiments
-the researcher measures the effect of the independent variable on the dependant variable
-the researcher has no control over the independent variable and cannot change it- the change is brought about by something or someone else
-the change would have occurred even if the researcher had not been there
-it is the IV, that is natural and not always the setting
-the DV may be naturally occurring or devised by the experimenter
-the researcher cannot randomly allocate participants, so it is not considered a true experiment.
What are the advantages of a field experiment?
-allows for investigations that may not have been practically or ethically possible otherwise
-often have high external validity as they involve the study of real world issues and problems
Describe the key features of a quasi experiment
-have an independent variable that is based on existing differences between people eg. Age or gender
-it has not been manipulated, but it simply exists due to differences between people
-this means that the IV cannot be changed
-the DV may be naturally occurring or devised by the experimenter
-no random allocation so cannot be considered a true experiment
What are the disadvantages of field experiments?
-no random allocation to conditions reduces confidence in establishing cause and effect
-naturally occurring situations are rare, so hard to study and replicate
-the IV isn’t deliberately changed, so the researcher can’t claim that it has caused any observable change
What are the advantages of a quasi experiment?
-often carried out under controlled conditions, so share the strengths of lab experiments
What are the disadvantages of quasi experiments?
-no random allocation of participants may lead to confounding variables.
-because the IV isn’t deliberately changed, the researcher cannot claim that it has caused any observable change
What is the difference between internal and external validity?
Internal validity refers to what happens inside the experiment, whereas external validity refers to whether or not the findings can be generalised to everyday life.
What does the sampling method used determine?
The sampling method used determines whether explanations of behaviour that can be generalised to a population beyond the research setting can be generated.
Define population
The large group of individuals who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, and who are being studied.
-This is a target population, as it is a subset of the general population
Define sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation, selected from the target population
-it is presumed that they are representative of that population, so that findings can be generalised
Define bias
In the context of sampling, bias occurs if certain groups are over or under-represented within the sample selected, and it limits the extent to which generalisation can occur.
Define generalisation
The extent to which the findings and conclusions of a study can be applied to the population
-this is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population
What is the purpose of sampling techniques?
To select a sample which is representative of the whole population, so that results and conclusions can be generalised to that whole population.
What is opportunity sampling?
When a researcher decided to select anyone who is available and willing to participate in their study.
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
This method is convenient as it saves time, effort, and is less costly.
What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
-the sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a specific area
-the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants, so can avoid those they don’t like the look of, increasing researcher bias
Define researcher bias
When a researcher influences the sample obtained, and who is selected
Define population validity
The extent to which results can be generalised to groups of people other than the sample
What is random sampling?
A from of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
-a complete list of all members of the target population is obtained
-each name is assigned to a number
-the sample is generated through a chance/lottery method
What are the strengths of random sampling?
It is free from researcher bias as the researcher has no choice or influence as to who is selected, so cannot select people they think support their hypothesis
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
-it is difficult and time consuming to obtain a complete list of a population
-doesn’t always create a representative sample
-participants may refuse to take part, leading to further bias
What is systematic sampling?
A form of sampling where every nth member of the target population is selected for the sample
-a sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in a target population, organised into an order
-the researcher then selects every nth person
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
-avoids researcher bias as once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is chosen
-it is usually fairly representative
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
-the process of selection can interact with ‘hidden traits’ within the population, which would mean the sample is not random or representative, if the sampling technique coincides with the frequency of the trait.
What is stratified sampling?
A sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in different subgroups (strata), within the target population or wider population
-the researcher identifies the strata in a population
-the proportions needed to create a representative sample are calculated
-the participants in each strata are randomly selected
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
-avoids researcher bias, as once the population has been divided into strata, the sample is selected randomly
-it produces a representative sample as it accurately represents a population, which makes findings generalisable
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
-requires a detailed knowledge of the population characteristics, which may not be available
-can be time consuming to divide into strata, and then randomly select
What is volunteer sampling?
Or self-selected sampling, is where participants select themselves to be a part of the sample
-a researcher may place an advert online or in a newspaper, so people respond who want to take part in the study
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
Creating the sample requires little effort from the researchers once the advert is created, as participants volunteer themselves
What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
-the sample will be bias and unrepresentative as volunteers tend to be a certain type of person, making it difficult to generalise results to a target population
-volunteers are eager to please, which increases the chance of demand characteristics, and decreases the internal validity.
Why is it important for a sample to be representative?
It is important for a sample to be representative of the target population, so that we can generalise the findings based on our sample to the target population.
If a sample is not representative of the target population, then the findings are of limited value and lacks population validity.
If a sample is representative of the target population, then the findings are more likely to represent accurately the target population, meaning they are high in population validity.
What are ethics?
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct that are necessary when conducting research
What are ethical issues?
Ethical issues arise in psychology when a conflict or dilemma exists between participants rights, and researchers goals to gain valuable and meaningful findings. This conflicts has implications for the safety and wellbeing of the participants.
What is the role of the British psychological society in ethics?
The bps code of ethics is a document instructing psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is, and is not acceptable when dealing with participants.
-they are not laws but a set of professional advice that requires psychologists to exercise professional judgement in complex research situations- or they may lose their job.
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants, at any stage of the investigation
-participants may not have received adequate information when they consented
-they may have been deliberately lied to
-however it can be justified on occasions where it does not cause the participants any undue distress
-it is often needed to avoid participants displaying demand characteristics, which decrease internal validity of the findings.
What is informed consent?
Involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, their rights (including the right to withdraw), and what their data will be used for.
-this allows them to make an informed decision as to whether or not they want to take part
-this however may also increase demand characteristics
What is protection from harm?
Participants should not be placed at any more physical or psychological risk than they would be in their daily lives eg. Embarrassment, inadequate, or undue stress.
-they should be reminded of their right to withdraw (right to leave the study at any time, or to withdraw their data after a study is finished)
What is privacy and confidentiality?
Participants have the right to control their information- it shouldn’t be disclosed to anyone unless agreed in advance
-confidentially refers to the right to have our data protected
What is presumptive consent?
A similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, and if they agree, the consent of the original participants is presumed.
How can we deal with the issue of informed consent?
-participants should be issued with a consent form detailing all of the relevant information that may affect their decision to take part
-consent is required from parents of those under 16
-if consent cannot be given, there are alternative ways of getting consent
What is prior-general consent?
Participants give their consent to take part in a number of different studies- including deception, essentially consenting to being deceived
What is retrospective consent?
Participants are asked for their consent, having already taken part in the study, so may not have been aware of their participation, or have been subject to deception.
How can we deal with the issue of deception, and protection from harm?
-at the end of a study, participants should be given a full debrief (made aware of the aims of the investigation, and any details they had not already been given)
-they should be told what their data will be used for, and the right to withdraw their data
-they should have been informed of their right to withdraw during the experiment
How can we deal with the issue of privacy and confidentiality?
-personal data must be protected (so researchers may use numbers rather than names)
-remind participants during briefing and debriefing that their data will be protected throughout the process.
What is cost-benefit analysis?
Assessing the potential harm to the participants, compared to the potential benefits of the research to society. It is used by ethics committees, to decide if a study should take place.
Define validity
Validity is the stent to which we are measuring the variable that we intend to measure, and therefore whether the observed effect is genuine.
What are the three types of external validity?
Ecological validity
Population validity
Temporal validity
What is internal validity?
Internal validity refers to whether results obtained are solely affected by changes in the independent variable in a cause-and-effect relationship.
It can be assessed based on whether extraneous variables are controlled or eliminated.
What is external validity?
External validity refers to whether data can be generalised to other situations outside of the research environment they were originally gathered from.
What is temporal validity?
Whether results are generalisable over a time period
What is population validity?
Whether results are generalisable to the wider target population
What is ecological validity?
Whether results are generalisable to real-life situations.
What is face validity?
Refers to whether a study is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure at face value.
What is criteria validity?
Refers to whether the data gathered compares to data from a test with a different measure of the same variable, and how it correlates.
What is concurrent validity?
The extent to which the results of the experiment match the results of an existing and well-established test.
How can the validity of experiments be improved?
Use a control group to assess whether changes in the dependant variable were due to changes in the independent variable.
Use standardised procedures to reduce participant variables and investigator effects.
Using single and double-blind procedures.
How can the validity of questionnaires be improved?
Incorporate a lie scale to assess the consistency of responses and detect social desirability bias.
Increase validity by telling participants that all responses will be kept anonymous.
How can the validity of observations be improved?
Make the observer undetected (covert observations) so that the behaviour of those observed is authentic and natural.
Narrow down behavioural categories to study behaviour more closely.
How can the validity of qualitative research be improved?
Higher ecological validity in case studies and interviews as they reflect the participants reality.
Interpretive validity ensures the researchers interpretation of events matches that of the participants.
Triangulation- the use of a number of different sources of evidence- further increases validity.
Define reliability?
Reliability refers to whether the measurement of a particular behaviour is consistent and therefore trustworthy.
How can test-retest be used to assess reliability?
A method of assessing the reliability of an experiment by assessing the same person or group of people on separate occasions.
This shows the extent to which the test produces consistent results.
There must be sufficient time between the two tests.
The results from the two tests are correlated to ensure they are similar.
How can the split-half method be used to assess reliability?
When the sample is split into two and both assessed in the same way.
The results from the two tests are correlated to ensure they are similar.
How can inter-rates be used to assess reliability?
Refers to the stent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in a consistent way.
This helps to ensure reliability in situations where there may be subjectivity.
Results from each experimenter are correlated to ensure they are similar.
What is correlational analysis?
When the correlation coefficient between two sets of results is calculated
It should exceed +0.80 for reliability
How can the reliability of questionnaires be improved?
The reliability of questionnaires should be assessed using the test-retest methods.
If reliability is low, open questions may need to be replaced with closed, fixed-choice alternatives.
How can the reliability of interviews be improved?
Using the same interviewer every time, or training interviewers in the same way.
Use of structured interviews increases reliability as questions are fixed.
How can the reliability of observations be improved?
Ensure that behavioural categories have ben properly operationalised, so that they are measurable and self-evident.
Further training of observers may be needed to improve reliability.
How can the reliability of experiments be improved?
Standardised procedures means that they are consistent and therefore more reliable.
Define observations
A way in which psychologists can study behaviour, through a non-experimental method allowing behaviour to be visibly studied.
What are the types of observations?
Covert or overt
Participant or non-participant
Naturalistic or controlled
Structured or unstructured
Note: the techniques are not mutually exclusive and can fall under multiple techniques above, as they refer to different aspects of the method.
What is a covert observation?
An observation in which the participants are unaware that they are being observed, and that they are the focus of the study.
What is a covert observation?
An observation in which the participants are unaware that they are being observed, and that they are the focus of the study.
Strengths of covert observations
Investigator effects are less likely, as the investigator is hidden, so there is less chance that their behaviour will influence the behaviour of the participants. This means that there is therefore less chances of demand characteristics occurring whereby the participant guesses the aim and acts accordingly, as they do not know they are being observed. This means that the results will be high in internal validity.
Weaknesses of covert observations
There are ethical issues as participants are not aware that they are taking part in the investigation, so they cannot give informed consent or exercise their right to withdraw.
Note: it is acceptable to observe human behaviour in public places, and participants can be given a full debrief once observations are complete.
What are overt observations?
An observation in which the participants are aware that they are being observed, and have given their informed consent.
Strengths of overt observations
More ethical than the covert method as the participants are aware that their behaviour is being observed so psychologists are able to gain informed consent, and allow participants to exercise their right to withdraw themselves or their data. This protects the reputation of psychological research.
Weakness of overt observations
There is the possibility of investigator effects, whereby the investigators behaviour influences the behaviour of the participants in a way in which was not intended. The participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims. Therefore, this reduces the internal validity of the results obtained.
What are participant observations?
An observation in which the person conducting the observation also joins the group, and takes part in the activity being observed.
Strength of participant observations
The researcher can obtain in-depth data since they are in close proximity to the participants, so are able to gain a unique insight into the lives and activities of those being observed.
They are also unlikely to overlook any behaviour that would be missed by an external observer, due to nuances only seen by becoming a participant of the activity itself. Therefore a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour can be achieved.
Weakness of participant observations
The researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. This would also increase investigator effects and demand characteristics, which reduces the internal validity of the investigation.
What are non-participant observations?
An observation in which the observer does not join the group, or take part in the activity being observed.
Strength of non-participant observation
The researcher is able to remain objective by maintaining psychological distance. Investigator effects are less likely as the researcher’s behaviour is less likely to lead to demand characteristics, increasing the internal validity of the investigation.
Weakness of non-participant observation
The observer may lose valuable insight and miss behaviours of interest as they are too far removed from the behaviour they are observing. This means human behaviour will not be understood as deeply due to not being involved personally.
What are naturalistic observations?
An observation carried out in an unaltered setting, watching and recording the behaviour in the setting in which it would normally occur.
Strength of naturalistic observations
Has a high level of ecological validity as the researcher observes the behaviour in the natural environment. Therefore, behaviour is more representative of everyday activities.
Weakness of naturalistic observations
As observations are natural, a lack of control makes it difficult for the exact same conditions to be replicated. Therefore, the test-retest method cannot be used to check reliability, so the research using naturalistic observation usually lacks replicability.
What are controlled observations?
An observation that is conducted under strict conditions, where extraneous variables can be controlled to avoid interference with the behaviour being observed.
Strength of controlled observations
They can be replicated to check for reliability due to the conditions and variables being highly controlled. Therefore, standardised procedures, the manipulation of the independent variable and control of extraneous variables can be repeated by the same or different researchers to assess the reliability.
Weakness of controlled observations
Low levels of external validity as behaviour is observed in an artificial environment and under strict conditions. This means that participants behaviour may alter so the observation no longer represents real-life behaviour, decreasing the ecological validity.
What are structured observations?
An observation in which the researcher uses coded schedules according to a previously agreed formula to document the behaviour and organise data into behavioural categories.
What are behavioural categories?
When a target behaviour is broken up into specific components that are observable and measurable (operationalised).
To maintain inter-rather reliability, effective behavioural categories will be precise and not overlap, so that they cannot be interpreted differently by observers.
Strength of structured observations?
Researchers can compare behaviour between participants and across groups, as operationalised behavioural categories make the coding of data more systematic.
When there is more than one observer, there is greater inter-observer reliability, meaning accurate comparisons can be made.
Weakness of structured observations?
Hard to ascertain high internal validity because crucial behaviours may be missed, which are important to the aim of the investigation. As a result, the findings may not provide the full picture about the behaviour in question, meaning internal validity is low, as what was intended to be measured was not achieved in its entirety.
What are uninstructed observations?
An observation in which every instance of the observed behaviour is recorded and described in as much detail as possible.
Strength of unstructured observations?
The data obtained is rich in detail so researchers are able to gain a comprehensive view of human behaviour, adding to the internal validity of the observational technique.
Weakness of unstructured observations
Prone to observer bias due to the lack of objective behavioural categories, so the observer may then only record behaviour which is of subjective value to them, and not a valid representation of what is being displayed. This may cause a problem with inter-observer reliability as there will be a lack of consistency ion the observations recorded.
What are the two sampling methods for observations?
Time sampling or event sampling
What is time sampling?
Where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals and fixed time frames
Strength of time sampling?
Allows for a better use of time since fewer observations are made.
Weakness of time sampling
Not every behaviour of relevance to the investigation will be counted if it occurs between the time frames allocated.
What is event sampling?
Where an observer records the number of times that the target behaviour occurs.
Strength of event sampling
Every behaviour of interest to the researcher will be counted from beginning to end of the observation
Weakness of event sampling
There is the possibility that some behaviours could be misused if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded.
What are questionnaires?
A type of self-report technique, involving participants responding to a set of questions, relating to their feelings or behaviours.
What can a questionnaire comprise of?
Open questions, closed questions or a mixture of both.
What should be considered when designing a questionnaire?
Keep the terminology simple and clear
Keep is as short as possible
Be sensitive and avoid personal questions
Do not use leading questions, make assumptions or use sweeping statements
Pilot and modify the questionnaire
What is an open question?
Does not have a fixed range of answers, allowing participants to answer how they wish, generating qualitative data.
Strengths of open questions
Less chance of researcher bias, especially if the questionnaire is anonymous, as participants can answer questions in their own words without input from the researcher providing a set number of responses. Therefore the internal validity is high as the responses are less likely to be influenced by the researchers expectations.
The qualitative data provides rich and detailed data which gives insight into the unique human condition increasing internal validity.
Weakness of open questions?
If not anonymous, participants may answer in a socially desirable way, where they try to portray themselves in the best possible light to the researcher. This means internal validity decreases.
What are closed questions?
Restrict the participants to a predetermined set of responses, and generate quantitative data.
What are the types of closed question?
Checklist
Liberty response scale
Ranking scale
What is a checklist?
When the participants tick the answers that apply to them
What is a likert response scale?
When participants rate their views and opinions on a question on a scale
What is a ranking scale?
Where participants place a list of items in their preferred order
Strength of closed questions?
Quantitative data is easy to analyse statistically or graphically, so direct comparisons can be made between groups or individuals. This means the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the data that lead to further research being conducted.
Weaknesses of closed questions
Closed questions often produce a response or acquiescence bias which is where participants answer in a similar way for all questions due to rushing or boredom. This decreases internal validity of the results.
Also, the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses that are of particular interest, as the questions are strictly predetermined. This means further insight is not gained so results lack internal validity.
What are interviews?
A type of self-report technique which takes place through a live encounter, in which one person asks a set of questions to examine their feelings and behaviours.
What is a structured interview?
When the questions are decided on in advance, and asked in exactly the same order for each interviewee taking part. The interviewer uses an interview schedule and records answers by taking notes and ticking boxes.
Strengths of structured interviews
Generate quantitative data which is easy to statistically and graphically analyse, so direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals, and the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the data.
The questions are standardised and asked in the same sequence to all participants, so the interview is easily replicable to test for reliability.
Weaknesses of structured interviews?
More chance of investigator effects if the interviewer unconsciously biases any responses given by their own behaviour. This would decrease the internal validity of the experiment.
The predetermined schedule and questions means that the interviewer cannot explore areas of interest. This means less in-depth and meaningful data is gathered, so the results are lacking in internal validity.
What are unstructured interviews?
Conducted like a conversation in which the interviewer only facilities the discussion rather than asking set questions. This means very little is decided in advance.
Strength of unstructured interviews
Produces a large amount of rich qualitative data, which increases the meaningful understanding of the data collected. This increases the insight gained and therefore the internal validity also.
Weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
Increased possibility of interviewer effects, as the interviewer may direct questions to meet their own preconceived agenda. This means responses are not authentic and unbiased so lowers internal validity.
More time-consuming and costly as they require trained psychologists to administer them. Also qualitative data is more costly and time-consuming to analyse, making it more difficult to identify patterns and trends.
What is a semi-structured interview?
Consists of mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time.
Strength of semi-structured interviews
Collects rich and insightful qualitative data, meaning the researcher gains a more in-depth understanding of the behaviour in question, increasing the internal validity
The open questions encourage people to be honest, which decreases the chance of a social desirability bias influencing the results.
Weaknesses of semi-structured interviews
Qualitative data is more costly and time-consuming to analyse, so may take more effort to obtain the results.
The interviewer still maintains control over the interview, which can leas to interviewer effects and lowers internal validity.
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale prototype of a study that is carried out in advance of the real research investigation.
What is the aim of pilot studies?
To check for any problems, and allow the researcher to make changes and modifications if necessary.
This includes experimental design flaws, instructions being unclear to participants and problems with measuring instruments.
It ensures that time, effort and money are not wasted on a flawed methodology.
What does a pilot study sample need to be?
Representative of the target population that will be used in the main study, despite being smaller.
What is a single-blind procedure?
When the researcher is aware of the test being conducted, but the participants are not aware.
What is a double-blind procedure?
When the researcher is not aware of the test being conducted, and neither are the participants. Often a third party conducts the investigation without knowing the purpose.
This eliminates both the investigator and the placebo effect.
What is peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of a high quality.
The research is scrutinised by a small group of usually two or three experts (peers) who are objective and unknown to the author.
This ensures that any research intended for publication is of a high quality.
What is the purpose of peer review?
To ensure the accuracy and validity of research findings, to prove the quality and relevance of the information, and recommend whether the research should be published or not.
To judge the significance and originality of the research, in the wider context of human behaviour, and ensure other relevant research is sufficiently detailed.
To allocate research funding to proposed research designs based on their aims, quality, and the value of the research.
To suggest amendments and improvements before publication.
What is the process of peer review?
Research proposals are submitted for peer review and assessed for merit.
Other psychologists/peer reviewers check the research report before deciding whether it should be published.
There is independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field.
Work is considered in terms of its validity, significance and originality.
There is an assessment of the appropriateness of the methods and designs used.
A reviewer can accept the manuscript as it is, accept it with revision, suggest the author makes revisions and resubmits the research, or reject the research without the possibility of resubmission.
What are the strengths of peer review?
Helps to prevent any substandard research from entering the mainstream which serves as protection for the reputation of the discipline.
Less opportunity for plagiarised or duplicated research to be published as peer reviewers are usually experts in a similar field. Therefore the journals that publish the work will be trusted for the articles that they publish.
Problem of competition in peer review?
As peer reviewers are often anonymous, there is the chance they will use this as a means to criticise rivals in their field of psychology. There is often limited funding for new research which could cause researchers to compete, giving each other inaccurate or unfair criticism following the peer review process. This means the review is not a valid reflection of the quality of the research.
Problem of the status-quo in peer review?
May suppress opposition to mainstream theories, wishing to maintain the status-quo in a field. Results that align with current beliefs are moire likely to be published than unconventional or innovative research, perhaps slowing down the rate of change within a particular scientific discipline.
Problem with finding peers in peer review?
May be difficult to find as suitable peer, particularly on a new or groundbreaking topic, so research that is not of a high quality may be passed if the researcher did not fully comprehend the aims or content.
Problem with positive publication bias in peer review?
Editors or journals want to publish positive results to increase the credibility and circulation of publications they make. This could mean other research is ignored or disregarded, leading to positive publication bias, and a false impression of the current state of psychology.
What is the economy?
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.
Why is psychological research reviewed for economic implications?
To help portray a clear picture of how peoples behaviour is affected in the real world.
Why is it difficult to assess economic implications?
Because psychological research may have far-reaching effects that are not quantifiable, making it difficult to assess the economic implications that it has in all cases.
