9 - Parenting and the Family

Question 1

7 components of parenting

Answer 1

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Nurturance
- showing warmth, responding to needs

Discipline
- explaining and providing appropriate punishment

Teaching
- asking teaching questions

Language
- age appropriateness

Materials
- what materials are provided by the parent to support the child’s play

Monitoring
- awareness of where the child is and what they’re doing

Managing
- routines, planning for the future

Question 2

2 primary dimensions of parental behaviour

Answer 2

Emotionality (warmth)
- responsive and child-centred
> or rejecting, uninvolved

Control
- being demanding, restricting their behaviour
> or being permissive and undemanding

Question 3

4 parenting styles

Answer 3

Authoritative
- high control, high warmth

Authoritarian
- high control, low warmth

Permissive
- low control, high warmth

Uninvolved
- low control, low warmth

Question 4

Which parenting style has the worst outcome in certain contexts?

Answer 4

Authoritarian

Question 5

Which parenting style has the best outcome in most contexts?

Answer 5

Authoritative

Question 6

Which parenting style has poor outcomes in most contexts?

Answer 6

Uninvolved

Question 7

Authoritarian

Answer 7

> don’t rely on discussion
harsh
children tend to be more dependent
public yelling / spanking

Question 8

Permissive

Answer 8

> don’t often discipline their children
like to meet the children’s needs
children seem to be less mature and less independent
more likely to have high self-esteem, but also behavioural problems

Question 9

Authoritative

Answer 9

> set guidelines but flexible
positive feedback instead of punishment
child tends to do well
child encouraged to be autonomous but are given rules

Question 10

Uninvolved

Answer 10

> don’t interact much with their child
occurs sometimes when the parent has their own problems
children tend to be susceptible to peer pressure

Question 11

Limitations of the Parenting Style Approach

Answer 11

• does not take into account the impact on the parents
  > child’s temperament and behaviours
  > physical and social neighbourhood
  > cultural practices

Question 12

Parenting and socioeconomic group

Answer 12

• in low socioeconomic groups, there is higher frequency of forbidding language
  > also less positive feedback
• because parenting is adapted to the contextual environment, i.e. a bad neighbourhood

Question 13

Ecological Systems approach to parenting

Answer 13

• interpreting parenting style in the light of cultural and contextual factors
  > i.e. socio-economic status and cultural values
• family seen as an ecosystem, where each element interacts (interdependent system)
  > child affects family members and vice versions

Question 14

Ecological Systems view on families

Answer 14

> tend to attain homeostasis 
  \+ an optimal paradigm of functioning for the kid
 > have boundaries but are adaptable
 > use routines
 > well functioning 

• Parents’ socialisation of the children
  > conscious and systematic socialisation with them, beginning at birth
  > social roles reinforced by modelling
  > promotes child’s social life and activities

Question 15

School Readiness

Answer 15

• is a child emotionally, cognitively and behaviourally ready to engage in a school environment in an optimal fashion
  > biggest predictor of adult success

Question 16

Ecological Systems perspective on family development

Answer 16

• Development is the relationship between people and their environments
  > cannot evaluate a child’s development only in the immediate environment
• instability and unpredictability in modern family life is the most destructive force in a child’s development
  > children that move a lot or have parents who act unpredictably tend to have persistent adjustment problems
  > children without strong primary relationships will find affirmation in inappropriate places, particularly in adolescence

Question 17

Four layers of relationships that influence a child’s development

Answer 17

• Microsystem
• Mesosystem
• Exosystem
• Macrosystem

Microsystem
- Variables that the child is directly exposed to
> relationships: family, school, neighbours, religious institutions
+ family is the most influential
> environment
> child’s body
+ general health
+ brain functioning, physiological and psychological
+ emotions and Cognitive systems

• most of the child’s behaviour is learned here
• consists of bidirectional influences
  > parents actively shape the development of the child
  > child actively shapes their own environment
  + we self-select into environments that suit our genotype

Mesosystem
- interconnections between the elements of the microsystem
> interactions between family and teachers
> relationship between child’s peers and family

Ecosystem
- Institutions of society that directly affect a child’s development
> parent’s workplace
> quality of school
> neighbourhood
- impacts a child’s development by influencing structures in the microsystem

Macrosystem
- Cultural Context
- provides values and customs within a culture
> influences parenting style, and teachers
> may be conscious or unconscious
- influences societal values and legislation provided by a society to help families function
- influences the interactions of all other layers (micro/meso/eco)

Question 18

Direct and indirect effects of parental conflict for the child

Answer 18

> direct = child witnesses argument
indirect = parents change their behaviours as a result of the argument

• sometimes highly conflictual parents can use the child in the argument
  > can be very detrimental to the child, and is poor modelling or behaviour and conflict management

Question 19

Effects of parental conflict on different sexes

Answer 19

• boys are more affected by family disharmony than girls
• boys are more likely exposed to parental arguments
• children can also impact parental relationships if they are Temperamentally difficult

Question 20

Child effect on parenting style

Answer 20

> child traits encourage a particular parenting style

> less cooperative children encourage an authoritarian style

Question 21

Effect of feedback loops on parenting style

Answer 21

> bidirectional relationships

- can be negative or positive loop

Question 22

Interactionist view on parenting

Answer 22

• biological predisposition is correlated with parenting

Question 23

Patterson’s Coercive Model of parenting

Answer 23

• Caregiver negative control can impact child non-compliance
• Child non-compliance can influence caregiver negative control

Negative Cycle

• cycles may begin when a child reacts with anger or resistance to a caregivers request
• can evoke anger from the caregiver
• often intensifies, and this coercive cycle can escalate
• children learn a pattern of relating within the family that could carry over to interactions outside the family such as peers and teachers
  > when coercive interactions dominate within the family, child conduct problems can stabilise throughout development and can generalise to other contexts

Question 24

Effect of maternal hormone levels on the child’s gender role

Answer 24

Hormonal levels in the mother during pregnancy can have effects on the gender role and identity developed in a child
- i.e. higher levels of testosterone associates with wanting to play with boy-oriented toys

Question 25

``` Birth Order Effects: Resource Theory Confluence Theory Interactionist View Sibling Differentiation Stereotype Thread Effect ```

Answer 25

Birth Order Effect: - the order of child birth is associated with declining intelligence - Resource Theory > the larger the family, the fewer the resources go into each child - Confluence Theory > in larger families, the intellectual climate drops because the first-born is exposed to a primarily adult-centred discourse (different intellectual environment) > later children are exposed to both child and adult centred discourse - Interactionist View > other factors like socioeconomic factors will modulate the order effect + resource theory becomes more pronounced when there's fewer resources Sibling Differentiation - Younger siblings may attempt Sibling Differentiation - Stereotype Thread Effect > people perform in intelligence tests in ways influenced by their self perception (of intelligence)

Question 26

Characteristics of the Birth order effect (stereotypes)

Answer 26

- First Born > most likely to take a leadership position > orderly idea of how the world works > sensitivity to being 'dethroned' by younger siblings - Youngest Child > may feel less capable, and a bit pampered by parents > may develop manipulative skills - Middle Child > feels rejected > may develop particularly good social skills to prevent being ignored - Only Child > advantage of full attention > constant scrutiny and control

Question 27

Effect of Siblings on Theory of Mind

Answer 27

- children with siblings have more advanced theories of mind early on - this effect evens out later

Question 28

Sibling Conflict and Parental Expectations

Answer 28

Sibling Conflict - new child born, older sibling tends to act jealous - siblings with high levels of conflict can amplify each others hostility which can reduce social skills outside of the house - adoption studies show children benefit from being raised separately from their siblings if there is pronounced sibling conflict Parental Expectations - older siblings shape parental expectations for younger children

Question 29

Moderating Sibling Conflicts test

Answer 29

Results: - siblings showed better conflict resolution skills - less negativity in conflict - nuanced assessment of blame - greater ability of theory of mind Test: - parents were trained to use formal mediation procedures to help them intervene in sibling conflicts - mediation / control groups

Question 30

Effect of Family Structure on Child Development - Single Parent - Same-sex Parents - Divorce - Changing Family - Marital Transitions

Answer 30

Single Parent - associated with worse outcomes (not necessarily causal) Same-sex Parents - no negative outcomes documented Divorce - 40% of children experience divorce > cultural influence + some cultures are more allowed to divorce ``` Changing Family - divorce and single-parent household > negative effects of divorce + stress + custodial mother's role as a single adult + children's adjustment to divorce > positive effects + children become happier if they were exposed to distress within the marriage ``` Marital Transitions - children in remarried families > resistance to stepparents > can be positive and negative influences

Question 31

Child Abuse

Answer 31

- most common in young children, under 3y | - perpetuated more often by females, except sexual abuse which is more likely perpetuated by the father

Question 32

Cycles of Abuse

Answer 32

- violence begets violence > abused children show higher levels of abuse to their own children + this is not necessarily a true rule

Question 33

4 acts of Child Maltreatment

Answer 33

- Physical Abuse - Emotional Abuse - Sexual Abuse - Neglect

Question 34

Emotional Abuse

Answer 34

- failure to provide developmentally appropriate environment | - child fails to establish a full range of emotional and social competencies

Question 35

Sexual Abuse

Answer 35

- involvement of a child in sexual activity that they do not fully comprehend or is not able to give consent to, and violates the laws of the society

Question 36

Neglect

Answer 36

- failure to provide for a child in all domains > physical and mental health > education > nutrition, shelter

Question 37

Patterns seen in families across all maltreatment types

Answer 37

> environment of coercion and abuse of power > lower levels of prosocial behaviour and verbal communication > undervaluing of children > deviant affective displays > maternal intrusiveness and non-responsiveness

Question 38

Cognitive Adaptations to maltreatment - defensiveness - hypervigilance - dissociation

Answer 38

- defensive structure in relation to trauma (PTSD) > hyper vigilance, cognitive distortions - Hypervigilance = constant scanning of environment and development of ability to detect subtle variations in it > can be transposed to others (trauma attachments) - Dissociation > altered level of self-awareness in an effort to escape an upsetting feeling + psychological escape

Question 39

Social and emotional adjustments to maltreatment

Answer 39

- maltreated children often suffer from low self-esteem, self-blame, negative affect towards self - greater risk of peer rejection > longer maltreatment occurs, the greater the likelihood of rejection > maybe because of a tendency to engage in coercive aggressive interactions with peers as a result of abuse and poor modelling

Question 40

Emotion regulation in maltreated children

Answer 40

- ability to modify, redirect and control emotions - maltreated children engage in efforts to avoid control or suppress emotion - modulation difficulties > extreme depressive reactions and intense angry outbursts - internalising behaviour problems > anxiety and depression

Question 41

Effect of Physical abuse on child's appraisals of others

Answer 41

- Physically abused children tend to be inaccurate in their appraisals of others > see anger more often in ambiguous scenarios

Question 42

Child maltreatment and risky behaviours

Answer 42

- increased likelihood to engage in a greater array of risky behaviours - certain types of maltreatment are associated with a greater number of sexual partners and heavier alcohol consumption - adult survivors of traumatic abuse are likely to engage in substance abuse, criminal and antisocial disorders, and eating disorders

Question 43

Child maltreatment and peer rejection

Answer 43

- chronic maltreatment is associated with higher levels of aggressive behaviour (modelling, gene-environment correlations) - social withdraw is associated with peer rejection

Question 44

At what age do babies become responsive to their peers?

Answer 44

6 months

Question 45

Relational Victimisation

Answer 45

> attempt by a peer to control or damage a child's relationship with other + talking behind someones back / social media

Question 46

Consequences of peer rejection

Answer 46

- children report feeling lonelier - poor achievement in school - school avoidance - higher risk of depression when older - higher risk of being bullied when older - peer status can change

Question 47

Long-term effects of child maltreatment

Answer 47

- many children become well-functioning adults - some suffer serious psychological distress - maltreating parents may fail to produce opportunities for positive social interaction for their children - children who experienced a lack of parental supervision were less likely to be accepted by peers > tendency to engage in unskilled or aggressive behaviour

Question 48

Development of Frienship

Answer 48

- reciprocity and commitment - young children view obligations very importantly - females of all ages are more likely to be concerned with > emotional resistance > stressing reasons to benefit others Developmental patterns of friendship - 3-7: goal of peer interaction is play - 8-12: acceptance by same-gender peers - 13-17: goal of understanding the self > negative gossip is most salient social process > gossip is often a way of settling group norms

Question 49

Possible buffers to maltreatment

Answer 49

- best friends are likely to increase self esteem and act as a positive role model