8 - Theory of Mind and Autism Flashcards
1
Q
Neisser’s 5 Senses of Self
A
Not necessarily sequential
- ecological self
- interpersonal self
- extended self
- private self
- conceptual self
*sense of self is a gradual developmental process, the aspects together contribute to a higher-order self-concept
2
Q
Ecological Self
A
- sense of where we are as we move through the physical environment
> automatic process, emerges at birth
3
Q
Interpersonal Self
A
- get a sense of ‘I’ and ‘you” in social interactions
- no empathy yet
- not unique to humans
> emerges shortly after birth
4
Q
Extended Self
A
- aware of autobiographic timeline
> connection between past, present and future
+ arises from around 4y
+ some indication that this type of self is needed before children can memorise experiences (maybe why you can’t remember earlier memories)
5
Q
Private Self
A
- understand we have private thoughts, perspective that no one else has
> emerges around 4y
+ shown by sharing of dreams
6
Q
Conceptual Self
A
- sense of place in a wider sociocultural context (family/class/gender)
> emerges from 4-5y
+ major growth in conceptual self occurs in mid-late childhood
7
Q
Mirror Test (mark test)
A
Test of awareness of self
- child is marked on the face and shown a mirror
> by 2y 50% of children can recognise themselves, and point to the mark
Requirements for passing the test:
Self-concept
- children understand that the mirror image is them
Object permanence
- may be a prerequisite for self-recognition (self permanence)
8
Q
Gender Identity
A
- perception of oneself as either male or female
> largely biological - from 2y children start developing a gender identity
9
Q
Gender Typing
A
- process by which children become aware of their gender and acquire culture-appropriate values/behaviours
- children will start using stereotype features to determine whether another child is a boy or girl (i.e. long hair)
10
Q
Gender Stereotypes
A
- beliefs held about how men/women should behave (cultural)
11
Q
Gender Roles
A
- reflections of a culture’s gender stereotypes
> influenced by social context
12
Q
Sexual Orientation
A
- sexual attraction to members of a particular gender
13
Q
Gender Typing Theories
A
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Typing
Gender-Schema Theory
Nesdale’s Social Identity Development Theory
Ingroup Favouritism (developmental intergroup theory)
14
Q
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Typing (3 phases)
A
- Basic gender identity is acquired through reinforcement and role models (2-3y)
> no understanding of gender identity permanence - Gender stability acquisition (4-5y)
- Gender constancy acquisition
> realise others also have gender stability (6-7y)
> recognise that cultural stereotypes of gender don’t necessarily predict gender
15
Q
Gender-Schema Theory of gender typing
A
- child develops schemas about gender that help organise and understand information relating to gender
> easier to remember information that is gender-consistent
+ will insist that policemen are always male
> learned up to 3y - at 4-5y, these schemas consolidate
> learn that their schemas are flexible
16
Q
Nesdale’s Social Identity Development Theory of gender typing (4 stages of Ethnic Attitudes)
A
- Undifferentiated
> do not differentiate ethnicities - Ethnic awareness
- Ethnic preference
> often to own, but could prefer the ethnic majority - Ethnic prejudice
> not all children reach this
17
Q
Developmental Intergroup Theory of gender typing
A
Ingroup Favouritism
- groups form rapidly
- group formation is based on differences
18
Q
Minimal Group affiliation study
A
Results:
- kids much more likely to remember positive information on kid with the same shirt (in-group), and negative information for the other shirt (out-group)
- kid much more wanting to play with the in-group kid
Study:
- kids divided into blue shirt/green shirt groups
- both were told a story about a kid in a green/blue shirt with equal numbers of positive and negative characteristics in each
19
Q
Factors effecting child prejudice
A
- colour blind language has no effect on child prejudice
- exposure to a diversity of ethnicities reduces prejudice
20
Q
Self-Regulation
A
the ability to control our emotions
- requires the ability to inhibit engaging in a desired or natural action (Delay of Gratification)
21
Q
Delay of Gratification
A
> ability to inhibit engaging in an action that will bring a desired reward
22
Q
Marshmallow test
A
Test of self-regulation (which requires delay of gratification)
- much harder to delay gratification if the marshmallow is in view
- kids employing distraction strategies are much more likely to pass the test
- Study comparing kids in middle-class Germany to local kids in Cameroon (using a locally known treat)
> 30% of german kids passed the test, as normally found
> 70% of Cameroon kids passed, didn’t seem to mind
+ shows that cultural differences have an impact on developing self regulation
+ probably due to cultural rules on behaviour and respect
23
Q
Longitudinal Glitter test
A
Test of development of self-regulation
Results of glitter test:
- delay of gratification improves with age
- kids that did well in the glitter test were likely to do well in the stroop test
- Child is shown a desirable (glittery) object and told not to touch it
- tested at ages:
> 14m
> 20m
> 24m
> 36m - all children were seen again at 17y
> tested Executive Functioning via Stroop Test
+ words of colour, letters are in a particular colour
+ have to say the colour of the letters not the word written
24
Q
Stroop test
A
Test of executive functioning
+ words of colour, letters are in a particular colour
+ have to say the colour of the letters not the word written
25
Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task
test of self-regulation and impulse control
```
Stage 1
- touch your head = touch your toes
> vice versa
Stage 2
- touch your shoulders = touch your knees
> vice versa
Stage 3
- incorporates all elements
```
- complex task
- understand instructions, execute them
> impulse control required to overrule the instructions
- success on this task varies across cultures
> asian cultures seem to be better than western cultures
+ seem to develop self-regulation quicker
26
Self-regulation and the brain
- different parts of the brain develop at different ages
- final part to develop is the frontal lobe (late teen, early adulthood)
> frontal lobe responsible for executive functioning
+ planning, emotional regulation, thought regulation
27
Case of Phineas Gage
- had an accident where a metal rod went through his frontal lobe
- survived but with a striking personality change and no impulse control
- showed that the frontal lobe is crucial for self-regulation
28
Theory of Mind
The ability to think about and reason about the mental states of others
- required to make inferences about what they're doing and why they're doing it
- may be related to empathy
- develops gradually
- important in social development
29
Stages of Social Perspective Taking (0-4)
- Egocentric Perspective
- Differentiated Perspective
- Reciprocal Perspective
- Mutual Perspective
- Networks of Perspective
30
Egocentric Perspective
Stage 0
> do not distinguish between their own perspective and others'
> do not recognise that other's may interpret experiences differently
31
Differentiated Perspective
Stage 1
> recognise that someone else may have a different perspective
> cannot accurately judge that other perspective
32
Reciprocal Perspective
Stage 3
> child can see themselves from another perspective
> can anticipate and consider others' thoughts and feelings
33
Mutual Perspective
Stage 3
> can identify their own, someone else, but also a mutual perspective from a third person
+ i.e. a teacher may have different views on different students
34
Network of Perspective
Stage 4
> children understand perspectives wider than one particular person
+ i.e. political / social perspectives
35
Smarties Test
False-belief test
Test of Perspective
Results:
- children under 3y will say the friend will say 'pencils'
> have not developed a theory of mind understanding, so cannot determine that the friend will not know what's in the box
- children around 4y will say the friend will say 'smarties'
> have developed theory of mind understanding
```
Test:
- child given a box of smarties
- 'whats in the box'?
> smarties
- box is opened (pencils inside)
- 'whats in the box'?
> pencils
- 'we will close the box and show it to your friend, what will they say is in the box?'
```
36
When does Theory of Mind develop?
in normally developing children around 3.5y
37
Sally-Anne task
False-Belief task
Test of perspective
Results:
- children over 4y recognise sally doesn't know that the ball has moved and say she will look in the basket
- children of 3y think she will look in the box
- children with autism will fail (think sally looks in the box) at an older age
> could indicate that their incomplete social relationships is due to an inability to understand theory of mind, and appreciate another person's perspective
- two dolls, sally and anne
- a box and a basket
- sally puts a ball in the basket and goes away
- anne moves the ball in the box
- sally returns
- where will sally look for the ball?
- also asked: where was the ball originally + where is the ball really
38
Results of children with autism on false-belief tasks and the indication
- children with autism will fail false-belief tasks at an older age that normally developing children
> could indicate that their incomplete social relationships is due to an inability to understand theory of mind, and appreciate another person's perspective
39
Characteristics of Autism
- impairment in social interaction and communication
- restricted range of interests and activities
```
- large variability in
> expression/severity
> language
> intellectual abilities
- thus: autism spectrum disorders
```
40
Classic Autism (Kanner autism)
initial classification of autism
| > very severe autism with co-occurring intellectual disability
41
DSM-IV classification of autism
> diagnostic criteria are broader than classic autism, could occur in high-intellectual functioners
> umbrella term: Pervasive Developmental Disorders:
+ Aspergers and PDD-NOS (pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified)
42
DSM-5 classification of autism
> all autism subtypes captured under Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
+ because the previous subtypes were not reliable (different diagnoses in different clinics)
> stricter criteria than DSM-IV
43
Different Diagnostic Classification Systems, DSM-5 and ISD-10
- DSM (5)
> Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental disorders
+ made by the American Psychiatric Association (APA)
- ISD-10
> Published by the World Health Organisation (WHO)
+ ISD-11 coming, will be globally applicable
44
Autism Classification Terminology:
- DSM-IV and ICD-10
> denote Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)
- DSM-5 and ICD-11
> denote Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
- some people use Autism to denote the severe subtype, some use Autism to denote all ASD
45
Measuring the Commonality of Autism (2)
Incidence
Prevalence
- first showed 0.04%
- recent studies showing 1%
46
Incidence
number of new cases in a particular time frame in a particular population
47
Prevalence
total number of cases at a particular time in a particular population
48
Causes of an increase in autism prevalence
- increased developmental screenings
- diagnostic criteria have widened
- increased awareness in general public and medical/educational professionals
> thus fewer undetected cases
- Diagnostic Substitution
> diagnostic criteria of today would indicate Autism, whereas at the time (in the past) someone was diagnosed with a different disorder (i.e. developmental language disorder), due to different criteria
* research suggests autism levels are stable
- it is unknown whether stricter criteria in DSM-5 (vs DSM-IV) will affect the ASD prevalence in future studies
49
Sex differences in autism
- much higher in males than females (4:1)
> in those with intellectual disability ratio is (2:1)
> in those with normal IQ, ratio is (8:1)
Causes?
- perhaps autism is related to prenatal testosterone
- perhaps autism is under-diagnosed in females
50
Causes of Autism
- used to be attributed to brain damage or 'refrigerator mother' (cold parenting)
- First twin study showed a much higher concordance rate of autism with MZ twins than DZ twins
- more recent twin studies show similar results
> strong genetic influence
> heritability around 80%
51
What have family studies found in relation to autism?
- families with Asperger's traits or syndrome within them are likely to retain them, and can give rise to autistic children
```
Broader Autistic Phenotype
- within families with autism, relatives show
> increased rates of social deficits
> difficulties with communication
> preference for a routine
```
- broader autism phenotype is observed on a behavioural level as well as a cognitive level
- there is a real variation in autistic traits
> only in the extreme presentation of these traits may you be potentially considered autistic
52
What is Asperger's ?
a form of autism
53
Risk Factors for Autism
- genetic heritability
> also de novo mutations
```
- Environmental risk factors
> prenatal infection
> prenatal exposure to pollutants of insecticides
> maternal medication use
> birth complications
```
- inconsistent evidence to a clear single environmental risk factor
- likely a gene-environment interaction
