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Developmental > 8 - Theory of Mind and Autism > Flashcards

8 - Theory of Mind and Autism Flashcards

1
Q

Neisser’s 5 Senses of Self

A

Not necessarily sequential

  • ecological self
  • interpersonal self
  • extended self
  • private self
  • conceptual self

*sense of self is a gradual developmental process, the aspects together contribute to a higher-order self-concept

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2
Q

Ecological Self

A
  • sense of where we are as we move through the physical environment
    > automatic process, emerges at birth
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3
Q

Interpersonal Self

A
  • get a sense of ‘I’ and ‘you” in social interactions
  • no empathy yet
  • not unique to humans
    > emerges shortly after birth
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4
Q

Extended Self

A
  • aware of autobiographic timeline
    > connection between past, present and future
    + arises from around 4y
    + some indication that this type of self is needed before children can memorise experiences (maybe why you can’t remember earlier memories)
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5
Q

Private Self

A
  • understand we have private thoughts, perspective that no one else has
    > emerges around 4y
    + shown by sharing of dreams
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6
Q

Conceptual Self

A
  • sense of place in a wider sociocultural context (family/class/gender)
    > emerges from 4-5y
    + major growth in conceptual self occurs in mid-late childhood
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7
Q

Mirror Test (mark test)

A

Test of awareness of self

  • child is marked on the face and shown a mirror
    > by 2y 50% of children can recognise themselves, and point to the mark

Requirements for passing the test:
Self-concept
- children understand that the mirror image is them
Object permanence
- may be a prerequisite for self-recognition (self permanence)

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8
Q

Gender Identity

A
  • perception of oneself as either male or female
    > largely biological
  • from 2y children start developing a gender identity
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9
Q

Gender Typing

A
  • process by which children become aware of their gender and acquire culture-appropriate values/behaviours
  • children will start using stereotype features to determine whether another child is a boy or girl (i.e. long hair)
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10
Q

Gender Stereotypes

A
  • beliefs held about how men/women should behave (cultural)
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11
Q

Gender Roles

A
  • reflections of a culture’s gender stereotypes

> influenced by social context

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12
Q

Sexual Orientation

A
  • sexual attraction to members of a particular gender
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13
Q

Gender Typing Theories

A

Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Typing

Gender-Schema Theory

Nesdale’s Social Identity Development Theory

Ingroup Favouritism
(developmental intergroup theory)
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14
Q

Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Typing (3 phases)

A
  • Basic gender identity is acquired through reinforcement and role models (2-3y)
    > no understanding of gender identity permanence
  • Gender stability acquisition (4-5y)
  • Gender constancy acquisition
    > realise others also have gender stability (6-7y)
    > recognise that cultural stereotypes of gender don’t necessarily predict gender
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15
Q

Gender-Schema Theory of gender typing

A
  • child develops schemas about gender that help organise and understand information relating to gender
    > easier to remember information that is gender-consistent
    + will insist that policemen are always male
    > learned up to 3y
  • at 4-5y, these schemas consolidate
    > learn that their schemas are flexible
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16
Q

Nesdale’s Social Identity Development Theory of gender typing (4 stages of Ethnic Attitudes)

A
  • Undifferentiated
    > do not differentiate ethnicities
  • Ethnic awareness
  • Ethnic preference
    > often to own, but could prefer the ethnic majority
  • Ethnic prejudice
    > not all children reach this
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17
Q

Developmental Intergroup Theory of gender typing

A

Ingroup Favouritism

  • groups form rapidly
  • group formation is based on differences
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18
Q

Minimal Group affiliation study

A

Results:

  • kids much more likely to remember positive information on kid with the same shirt (in-group), and negative information for the other shirt (out-group)
  • kid much more wanting to play with the in-group kid

Study:

  • kids divided into blue shirt/green shirt groups
  • both were told a story about a kid in a green/blue shirt with equal numbers of positive and negative characteristics in each
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19
Q

Factors effecting child prejudice

A
  • colour blind language has no effect on child prejudice

- exposure to a diversity of ethnicities reduces prejudice

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20
Q

Self-Regulation

A

the ability to control our emotions

- requires the ability to inhibit engaging in a desired or natural action (Delay of Gratification)

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21
Q

Delay of Gratification

A

> ability to inhibit engaging in an action that will bring a desired reward

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22
Q

Marshmallow test

A

Test of self-regulation (which requires delay of gratification)

  • much harder to delay gratification if the marshmallow is in view
  • kids employing distraction strategies are much more likely to pass the test
  • Study comparing kids in middle-class Germany to local kids in Cameroon (using a locally known treat)
    > 30% of german kids passed the test, as normally found
    > 70% of Cameroon kids passed, didn’t seem to mind
    + shows that cultural differences have an impact on developing self regulation
    + probably due to cultural rules on behaviour and respect
23
Q

Longitudinal Glitter test

A

Test of development of self-regulation

Results of glitter test:

  • delay of gratification improves with age
  • kids that did well in the glitter test were likely to do well in the stroop test
  • Child is shown a desirable (glittery) object and told not to touch it
  • tested at ages:
    > 14m
    > 20m
    > 24m
    > 36m
  • all children were seen again at 17y
    > tested Executive Functioning via Stroop Test
    + words of colour, letters are in a particular colour
    + have to say the colour of the letters not the word written
24
Q

Stroop test

A

Test of executive functioning

+ words of colour, letters are in a particular colour
+ have to say the colour of the letters not the word written

25
Q

Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task

A

test of self-regulation and impulse control

Stage 1
- touch your head =  touch your toes
 > vice versa
Stage 2
- touch your shoulders = touch your knees
 > vice versa
Stage 3
- incorporates all elements
  • complex task
  • understand instructions, execute them
    > impulse control required to overrule the instructions
  • success on this task varies across cultures
    > asian cultures seem to be better than western cultures
    + seem to develop self-regulation quicker
26
Q

Self-regulation and the brain

A
  • different parts of the brain develop at different ages
  • final part to develop is the frontal lobe (late teen, early adulthood)
    > frontal lobe responsible for executive functioning
    + planning, emotional regulation, thought regulation
27
Q

Case of Phineas Gage

A
  • had an accident where a metal rod went through his frontal lobe
  • survived but with a striking personality change and no impulse control
  • showed that the frontal lobe is crucial for self-regulation
28
Q

Theory of Mind

A

The ability to think about and reason about the mental states of others

  • required to make inferences about what they’re doing and why they’re doing it
  • may be related to empathy
  • develops gradually
  • important in social development
29
Q

Stages of Social Perspective Taking (0-4)

A
  • Egocentric Perspective
  • Differentiated Perspective
  • Reciprocal Perspective
  • Mutual Perspective
  • Networks of Perspective
30
Q

Egocentric Perspective

A

Stage 0
> do not distinguish between their own perspective and others’
> do not recognise that other’s may interpret experiences differently

31
Q

Differentiated Perspective

A

Stage 1
> recognise that someone else may have a different perspective
> cannot accurately judge that other perspective

32
Q

Reciprocal Perspective

A

Stage 3
> child can see themselves from another perspective
> can anticipate and consider others’ thoughts and feelings

33
Q

Mutual Perspective

A

Stage 3
> can identify their own, someone else, but also a mutual perspective from a third person
+ i.e. a teacher may have different views on different students

34
Q

Network of Perspective

A

Stage 4
> children understand perspectives wider than one particular person
+ i.e. political / social perspectives

35
Q

Smarties Test

A

False-belief test
Test of Perspective

Results:
- children under 3y will say the friend will say ‘pencils’
> have not developed a theory of mind understanding, so cannot determine that the friend will not know what’s in the box
- children around 4y will say the friend will say ‘smarties’
> have developed theory of mind understanding

Test:
- child given a box of smarties
- 'whats in the box'? 
 > smarties
- box is opened (pencils inside)
- 'whats in the box'?
 > pencils
- 'we will close the box and show it to your friend, what will they say is in the box?'
36
Q

When does Theory of Mind develop?

A

in normally developing children around 3.5y

37
Q

Sally-Anne task

A

False-Belief task
Test of perspective

Results:
- children over 4y recognise sally doesn’t know that the ball has moved and say she will look in the basket
- children of 3y think she will look in the box
- children with autism will fail (think sally looks in the box) at an older age
> could indicate that their incomplete social relationships is due to an inability to understand theory of mind, and appreciate another person’s perspective

  • two dolls, sally and anne
  • a box and a basket
  • sally puts a ball in the basket and goes away
  • anne moves the ball in the box
  • sally returns
  • where will sally look for the ball?
  • also asked: where was the ball originally + where is the ball really
38
Q

Results of children with autism on false-belief tasks and the indication

A
  • children with autism will fail false-belief tasks at an older age that normally developing children

> could indicate that their incomplete social relationships is due to an inability to understand theory of mind, and appreciate another person’s perspective

39
Q

Characteristics of Autism

A
  • impairment in social interaction and communication
  • restricted range of interests and activities
- large variability in
 > expression/severity
 > language
 > intellectual abilities
- thus: autism spectrum disorders
40
Q

Classic Autism (Kanner autism)

A

initial classification of autism

> very severe autism with co-occurring intellectual disability

41
Q

DSM-IV classification of autism

A

> diagnostic criteria are broader than classic autism, could occur in high-intellectual functioners

> umbrella term: Pervasive Developmental Disorders:
+ Aspergers and PDD-NOS (pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified)

42
Q

DSM-5 classification of autism

A

> all autism subtypes captured under Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
+ because the previous subtypes were not reliable (different diagnoses in different clinics)
stricter criteria than DSM-IV

43
Q

Different Diagnostic Classification Systems, DSM-5 and ISD-10

A
  • DSM (5)
    > Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental disorders
    + made by the American Psychiatric Association (APA)
  • ISD-10
    > Published by the World Health Organisation (WHO)
    + ISD-11 coming, will be globally applicable
44
Q

Autism Classification Terminology:

A
  • DSM-IV and ICD-10
    > denote Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)
  • DSM-5 and ICD-11
    > denote Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
  • some people use Autism to denote the severe subtype, some use Autism to denote all ASD
45
Q

Measuring the Commonality of Autism (2)

A

Incidence

Prevalence

  • first showed 0.04%
  • recent studies showing 1%
46
Q

Incidence

A

number of new cases in a particular time frame in a particular population

47
Q

Prevalence

A

total number of cases at a particular time in a particular population

48
Q

Causes of an increase in autism prevalence

A
  • increased developmental screenings
  • diagnostic criteria have widened
  • increased awareness in general public and medical/educational professionals
    > thus fewer undetected cases
  • Diagnostic Substitution
    > diagnostic criteria of today would indicate Autism, whereas at the time (in the past) someone was diagnosed with a different disorder (i.e. developmental language disorder), due to different criteria
  • research suggests autism levels are stable
  • it is unknown whether stricter criteria in DSM-5 (vs DSM-IV) will affect the ASD prevalence in future studies
49
Q

Sex differences in autism

A
  • much higher in males than females (4:1)
    > in those with intellectual disability ratio is (2:1)
    > in those with normal IQ, ratio is (8:1)

Causes?

  • perhaps autism is related to prenatal testosterone
  • perhaps autism is under-diagnosed in females
50
Q

Causes of Autism

A
  • used to be attributed to brain damage or ‘refrigerator mother’ (cold parenting)
  • First twin study showed a much higher concordance rate of autism with MZ twins than DZ twins
  • more recent twin studies show similar results
    > strong genetic influence
    > heritability around 80%
51
Q

What have family studies found in relation to autism?

A
  • families with Asperger’s traits or syndrome within them are likely to retain them, and can give rise to autistic children
Broader Autistic Phenotype
- within families with autism, relatives show
 > increased rates of social deficits
 > difficulties with communication
 > preference for a routine
  • broader autism phenotype is observed on a behavioural level as well as a cognitive level
  • there is a real variation in autistic traits
    > only in the extreme presentation of these traits may you be potentially considered autistic
52
Q

What is Asperger’s ?

A

a form of autism

53
Q

Risk Factors for Autism

A
  • genetic heritability
    > also de novo mutations
- Environmental risk factors
 > prenatal infection
 > prenatal exposure to pollutants of insecticides
 > maternal medication use
 > birth complications
  • inconsistent evidence to a clear single environmental risk factor
  • likely a gene-environment interaction

Developmental (13 decks)

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