9. Middle East 1917-48 Flashcards
1
Q
What was the Skyes-Picot Agreement?
A
- A secret agreement between the governments Britain and France, with the approval of Russia, that was signed in 1916 during WW1
- The agreement aimed to divide the Ottoman Empire’s Middle Eastern possessions between them
- Britain would take: Jordan, south Iraq and Palestine
- France would take: East Turkey, northern Iraq, Syria and Lebanon
- The agreement was criticised by many Arabs, who saw it as a betrayal of their aspirations for independence and self-determination
2
Q
What was the McMahon Hussein Agreement?
A
- A series of letters exchanged during WW1 between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon and Sharif Hussein bin Ali (the Arab leader of the Hejaz region of the Ottoman Empire)
- The correspondence took place between July 1915 to March 1916
- Included promises by the British to support Arab independence in exchange for Arab support against the Ottoman Empire
- Significant moment as it helped encourage Arab support for the British and played a key role in shaping the post-war settlement in the Middle East
- Controversial as the British made promises to both the Arabs and the French about the future of the Middle East which contributed to tensions between the two sides
3
Q
What was the Balfour Declaration? (Palestine)
A
- A statement issued by the government in 1917 that expressed support for the establishment of a ‘national home for the Jewish people’ in Palestine
- The declaration was made in a letter from British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a prominent British Zionist (Zionists were members of a political movement that aimed to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine)
- The Balfour declaration was significant for the Zionist movement as it was the first time that a major world power had expressed support for the idea of a Jewish state in Palestine
- However it was also controversial as it was seen by many Palestinians and Arabs as a betrayal of their own aspirations for self-determination
4
Q
In what ways did the Balfour Declaration prove to be troublesome?
A
- Jews set up the Zionist Commission (1918) that campaigned for more rights
- Arabs set up Muslim-Christian Association (1918) as a response
- 1918-20 there were violent clashes between Arabs and Jews
- More Jews began to migrate to Palestine - 175k by 1931 (18% of the population - it was 7% in 1918)
5
Q
What was the Arab Revolt?
A
- A military campaign launched by Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during WW1
- The revolt began in 1916 and was led by Arab leaders such as Sharif Hussein bin Ali, who sought to establish an independent Arab state in the Middle East
- The revolt was supported by the British, who promised to support Arab independence in exchange for Arab support against the Ottoman Empire
- The Arab Revolt was a significant moment as it helped to weaken the Ottoman Empire and played a role in shaping the post-war settlement in the region
- The revolt helped to encourage Arab nationalism and played a role in the establishment of several Arab states in the Middl East in the years following WW1
6
Q
What was the Peel Report? (Palestine)
A
- An inquiry that was established in 1936 to investigate the causes of the Arab-Jewish conflict Palestine
- Led by Lord Peel
- Published in 1937
- Recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states
- The Peel Report was a significant as it was the first time that a major international body had recommended the partition of Palestine
- The report was controversial as it was opposed by both Arab and Jewish leaders and ultimately it did not lead to the establishment of a partitioned state
7
Q
What key developments occurred in British governance of the Mandates in the 1930s?
A
1933 - Hitler became chancellor which accelerated Jewish immigration into Palestine
1936 - Britain sent 20,000 troops into Palestine to deal with Arab rioting and attacks on Jews
1937 - The Peel Report recommended the partition into separate Arab and Jewish areas
1937-39 - British adopted a policy of repression to deal with escalating violence - over 100 Arab terrorists were hanged
1939 - Fear of an Italian attack on Egypt - Britain changed its policy (called for a Palestinian state in which Jews currently living in the county would enjoy the right to a ‘national homeland’
1939 - Jewish immigration restricted to 15,000 a year for 5 years - this would ensure Arabs were still the majority when independence came
8
Q
Which factors shaped British policy in the Middle East?
A
- Nationalism
- Ethnic tensions
- Economies
- Strategic and military concerns were the most important as they were driven to deal with nationals in order to protect their strategic interests
- Protecting the Suez Canal and land route to India - growing troubles in the region became increasingly important
9
Q
How successful were British policies in the Middle East? (successful)
A
- They maintained their influence in Iraq despite independence
- They maintained its military and strategic advantage in the region
- They fulfilled their aim to lead mandates to independence
- They maintained control of the Suez Canal Zone
- They found a cost-effective way to govern (not in Palestine)
10
Q
How successful were British policies in the Middle East? (unsuccessful)
A
- There was further financial strain on the British government
- Increasing arrest showed that policy was unsuccessful
- They couldn’t control nationalism especially in Palestine
- Britain had to accept the growing importance of the USA in the region - it didn’t maintain its great power status
11
Q
What impact did WW1 have on the Middle East?
A
- Led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire
- Paved the way for the establishment of several new states in the region
- Contributed to the rise of Arab nationalism - Arab leaders such as Sharif Hussein bin Ali sought to establish independent Arab states in the Middle East
- Led to the establishment of British and French Mandates in the Middle East - intended to prepare the region for eventual independence
- The Mandates were controversial as they were seen by many as a form of colonialism
- The war contributed to the rise of new political movements in the Middle East such as Zionism
12
Q
What was the British position in Palestine at the outbreak of WW2?
A
- Its policy reversal had outraged the Jews without satisfying the Arabs
- Jewish organisations were forced to accept the British position however because of the pressure from Nazi aggression in Europe
- It saw this as the price of temporary stability in its military and strategic positions in Palestine and the Arab world
- Short-term strategy of expediency (immoral convenience)
13
Q
What impact did WW2 have on the Middle East?
A
- WW2 had a significant impact on the Middle East
- The war led to the expansion of European colonialism in the region - Britain and France sought to maintain control over their colonies in the face of German and Italian aggression
- The war also led to the establishment of new states in the Middle East, such as Lebanon and Syria which were created by the French after the fall of Vichy France
- The war contributed to the rise of Arab nationalism and anti-colonialism - many Arabs saw the war as an opportunity to push for independence from European powers
- The war led to the establishment of Israel - created in 1948 as a result of the holocaust and the Zionist movement
14
Q
How did indigenous peoples respond to imperial rule in the Egypt between 1914-47?
A
- In Egypt there was a countrywide revolution by Egyptians and Sudanese against the British occupation in 1919
- There was widespread civil disobedience, rioting, demonstrations and strikes encompassing all classes of society
- There were attacks on military bases, civilian facilities and personnel, in which Egyptian villages were burnt and railways destroyed
- At least 800 Egyptians were killed and 1600 wounded
- Following the ‘Milner report’, Egypt granted independence in 1922, but relations remained strained
- Britain refused to recognise full Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan or to withdraw all its forces
- Even after a further treaty in 1936, Britain retained troops in the Suez area
15
Q
How did indigenous peoples respond to imperial rule in the Palestine between 1914-47?
A
- Tensions in Palestine that escalated in the 1930s as more Jews entered the country
- Arab protest mounted and the inter-racial violence increased as the Jews formed the Haganah to protect themselves (this was an underground Jewish militia in Palestine that became the national army of Israel after the partition of Palestine)
- More militant Jewish nationalists formed secret units which waged open war on both the British and the Arabs
- By 1945 there was open conflict between the two communities that the British were unable to control - British announced their departure in 1947 and left the issue to the UN
