17. Attitudes to Empire and Post-Colonial ties

Question 1

What were Macmillan’s public views on the Empire?

Answer 1

• He had no plans for an abrupt withdrawal - believed Britain was a great world power and intended for it to remain that way
• Denied any intention of giving up Empire

Question 2

What did Macmillan’s Wind of Change speech (3 Feb 1960) say?

Answer 2

• The people are skilled, energised and initiative
• There has been an awakening of national consciousness and a press for independence
• Nationalism must be accepted as a fact - national policies must take account of it

Question 3

To what extent was Macmillan’s Wind of Change speech a significant turning point?

Answer 3

• The Conservative party (traditionally imperialist) had accepted decolonisation and the end of British control of Africa
• However, decolonisation had already taken place e.g. India, Ghana

Question 4

Why was rapid devolution of power in Africa the preferred course for Macmillan?

Answer 4

• Realised by 1960 that anything other than rapid devolution of power might produce insurrection
• He knew that brutal suppression of colonial peoples would damage Britain’s standing in the world and would be unpopular with the British public

Question 5

In what ways did the Cold War further encourage Macmillan to consider rapid decolonisation?

Answer 5

• Feared the spread of communism
• In 1960, Russian intervention in Africa seemed imminent

Question 6

How had attitudes towards Empire changed by 1960?

Answer 6

• Increasingly indifferent to Empire
• Unlikely to support new military burdens - particularly if this meant the reintroduction of National Service
• No good strategic or economic reasons for spending vast sums of money and risking the loss of thousands of lives trying to rule people who didn’t want to be ruled
• Most conservatives accepted decolonisation and Macmillan could rely on Labour for support
• Few Britons thought empire was worth fighting for
• The media was predominantly liberal
• People frowned on forceful methods of control
• Other concerns more important - living standards, poverty etc.

Question 7

To what extent was growing nationalism the main reason Macmillan came to accept the Wind of Change 1957-63? (growing nationalism)

Answer 7

• Didn’t want to spend money on controlling/policing nationalism - saw it as a waste
• Mau Mau rebellion had shown the British the extent of dangers of nationalism
• Nkrumah encouraged independence movements elsewhere - pan Africanism

Question 8

To what extent was growing nationalism the main reason Macmillan came to accept the Wind of
Change 1957-63? (other factors)

Answer 8

• Decolonisation elsewhere e.g. France in Algeria made it harder to justify retaining colonies
• Changing attitudes of the British people - more concerned with bread and butter problems
• International opinion/Un with new African member states - Britain wanted to be seen as reasonable
• The Cold War - threat of communism

Question 9

To what extent did Britain cling on to its imperial role 1963-67? (clung on to its imperial role)

Answer 9

• Growth of the Commonwealth in these years retained Britain’s global informal influence
• 100,000 British personal were ‘East of Suez’ and involvement in Malaya/attempts to strengthen Aden

Question 10

To what extent did Britain cling on to its imperial role 1963-67? (surrenders its imperial role)

Answer 10

• Effort to maintain influence/control over Rhodesia was half-hearted
• Turned to the ECC - movement away rom empire economically
• It granted independence to most of its colonies

Question 11

What influence did the Cold War have on Britain?

Answer 11

• The emergence of the Cold War between the US-dominated West and USSR-led communist East initially gave a renewed impetus (stimulation) to British imperialism
• Suited the USA to have a strong Britain (despite their anti-imperialist attitude) - could resist communist advances across the globe
• America was prepared to turn a blind eye to the post-war re-imposition of British control over its colonies in order to drive out communist insurgents
• The US was even prepared to step in and help Britain fighting against communists
• However, from 1947, the USA believed the best way of preventing communism was economic development of country where they were dependent on US loans and world trade - no longer dependent on Britain
• Britain was dependent on the US - the Marshall Plan (1948-52) provided Britain with $3.3bn

Question 12

In what ways was Britain proud of its political legacy in its former colonies?

Answer 12

• It was proud of creating new ‘nation states’ with their representative institutions and practices
• Parliaments, ministries, wigged judges and British-style legal systems were all legacies of the British
  empire

Question 13

In what ways did Britain maintain political influence over its former colonies?

Answer 13

• The establishment of a Commonwealth Secretary General in 1965 - coordinated many Commonwealth activities

Question 14

In what ways did the Commonwealth help maintain political ties with the colonies?

Answer 14

• It’s emphasis on shared political tradition helped maintain ties
• Regular (every 2 years) Commonwealth Conferences - attended by PMs/Presidents

Question 15

In what ways did continued post-colonial ties enable Britain to maintain a significant international
position?

Answer 15

• The Commonwealth helped to bolster Britain’s international position - provided a strong and wide-ranging diplomatic network and ensured Britain’s membership of key international bodies
• Britain’s place on the UN Security Council - reflection of Britain’s status acquired through empire and maintained through Britain’s world-wide influence

Question 16

Where did Britain continued to maintain military bases post-independence?

Answer 16

• Malta
• Cyprus
• Hong Kong
• Singapore

Question 17

How far did National Service (1939-1960) help maintain strong ties with the Empire/Commonwealth?

Answer 17

• Only way that lower class groups would encounter the Empire and Commonwealth at first hand
• Involved in late colonial wars e.g. Kenya, Malaya and Suez
• Abolished in 1960 - closed off outlet for travel and direct experiences of Empire

Question 18

In what ways did the Commonwealth continue to be financially linked to Britain?

Answer 18

• There was a major Commonwealth Economic Conference in 1952
• The City of London remained as one of the world’s major financial centres
• The government made every effort to keep ex-colonies within the Sterling Areas - can be argued that Britain replaced its formal empire with an informal empire of trading links and economic ties

Question 19

How significant was trade with the Commonwealth to Britain?

Answer 19

• Conventions of international trade and law + Britain’s imperial connections - gave rise to multi-national companies with branches around the world
• Important trading links that continued to be of major importance - particularly during Britain’s exclusion from the EEC until 1973

Question 20

Why was migration from Britain significant to maintain post-colonial ties?

Answer 20

• Between 1946 and 1957, approximately 1m people left Britain
• Intensified the range and depth of personal contacts between ordinary British people and the White
  Dominions
• 1948 survey - 25% of the population were in contact with relatives in the Dominions

Question 21

To what extent did Britain maintain strong post-colonial ties with its former colonies, 1947-67? (strong ties)

Answer 21

• Military basis
• Regular Commonwealth Conferences
• Queen remained head of the Commonwealth
• Continuation of established Trade links
• Immigration/migration

Question 22

To what extent did Britain maintain strong post-colonial ties with its former colonies, 1947-67? (weak ties)

Answer 22

• Legacies of law and political systems in colonies
• Common language and some anglicised communities
• Union Jack in corner of flags
• Sporting competition (e.g. rugby and cricket)

Question 23

What was migration to Britain from the empire like before 1947?

Answer 23

• Relatively small numbers of colonial immigrants
• Large numbers of Indian soldiers had been stationed in Britain during WW1 - although it was temporary

Question 24

What was the British Nationality Act?

Answer 24

• Recognition of the Empire’s contribution to the war
• Gave full British citizenship (including free entry into Britain) to every citizen of the Empire/Commonwealth

Question 25

Why did people migrate to Britain?

Answer 25

• Plentiful and well paid unskilled work in factories
• Active encouragement from government
• Successful recruitment drives to encourage unskilled workers to work in public transport and the NHS
• 1956, London transport took on nearly 4000 new employees - mostly from Barbados
• Plenty of jobs available - no limitation on level of immigration

Question 26

What were the numbers of migrants from the Commonwealth by 1958?

Answer 26

• 115 000 West Indians
• 55 000 Indians and Pakistanis
• 25 000 West Africans
• 10 000 Cypriots
• Nearly half lived in London which 25 000 lived in and around Birmingham
• Poorest housing in the least desirable parts of towns

Question 27

Why did racial tensions increase in the 1950s?

Answer 27

• Initial reaction - curiosity mixed with uncertainty
• Exposure to other races - first time for many Britons
• Post-war impact
• Worries about the dilution of British cultural and national identity
• Concern over protection of houses and jobs

Question 28

How did the British public respond to the arrival of migrants from the Empire?

Answer 28

• ‘Teddy Boys’ - attacked black people - violent riots in Nottingham and Notting Hill
• Oswald Mosley - anti-immigration
• 1962 survey - 90% of Brits supported legislation to curb immigration - 80% agreed that there were too many immigrants in Britain
• Often the British turned their backs to immigrant communities
• Campaigns against immigrant communities
• Survey in North London (1965) - 1/5 objected to working with black or Asian people; 1/2 refused to live next door to a coloured person; 9/10 disapproved of mixed marriages
• Racist attitudes were strongest among the w/c who lived in/near predominantly immigrant communities
• ‘Paki-bashing’ (attacks on anyone with black skin) was common

Question 29

What was the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act?

Answer 29

• Attempt to control the escalating immigration
• Free migration for former colonial subjects ended

Question 30

What was the public reaction to the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act?

Answer 30

• Massive public support - 70% of Britain

Question 31

What was the Race Relations Board (1965)?

Answer 31

• UK government body established to investigate and deal with complaints about racial discrimination
• Most complaints were dismissed due to lack of evidence - in its first year 982 complaints and 734 were dismissed

Question 32

To what extent was Britain welcoming of immigrants? (welcoming)

Answer 32

• British nationality act
• Steps to improve race relations e.g. Race Regulations Board
• Efforts to improve community relations e.g. Notting Hill Carnival

Question 33

To what extent was Britain welcoming of immigrants? (unwelcoming)

Answer 33

• Racist groups e.g. Teddy Boys
• Change to immigration rules
• Discrimination and violence