13. Decolonisation in Africa

Question 1

What factors contributed to the decolonisation of the British Empire between 1947-67?

Answer 1

• Nationalist movements
• Changing attitudes in Britain
• Changing priorities in Europe
• The Cold War
• Economic concerns

Question 2

Why did nationalism grow between 1947 and 1967?

Answer 2

• Urbanisation/economic development from WW2
• Education
• Inspiration from Indian independence
• Changed world after WW2 - both main powers were anti-imperialist
• Failure of the British to govern effectively
• Political concessions
• Unity and leadership helped bring people together

Question 3

How did NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS contribute to the decolonisation of the British Empire?

Answer 3

• Movements to secure independence from European empires and establish free independent states appeared in all parts of the world
• The strategies employed to secure these aims varied but they all posed a challenge to imperial governments
• Belgium and France were also giving up their independence
• As one colony was granted independence, others increased their demands for independence
• In 1960, 16 African states entered the UN - these newly independent states pressed for the independence for other colonial territories

Question 4

How did CHANGING ATTITUDES IN BRITAIN contribute to the decolonisation of the British Empire?

Answer 4

• Maintenance of the empire fell down the priorities list
• By 1960, Macmillan appreciated that any action, other than a rapid devolution of power, may produce a violent uprising
• Macmillan realised that the brutal suppression of colonial peoples would damage Britain’s credibility
• The British public were unlikely to support new military burdens, particularly if this meant the reintroduction of National Service

Question 5

How did CHANGING PRIORITIES IN EUROPE contribute to the decolonisation of the British Empire?

Answer 5

• They became less dependent on colonial support and became more reliant in Europe
• By the 1950s, Western Europe was experiencing dramatic post-war recovery, with full employment and rising living standards
• The emergence of the EEC helped refocus trade within Europe itself
• From the 1950s, support for empire was decreasing

Question 6

How did THE COLD WAR contribute to the decolonisation of the British Empire?

Answer 6

• There was a change in global power - France and Britain were no longer dominant
• The USA and the USSR were both hostile towards imperialism
• Britain was heavily dependent on the USA for defence and economic support - they were susceptible to American pressures to speed up decolonisation
• Britain were worried that if they didn’t grant independence on their terms on their own terms then Africa may become a battleground between the east and the west
• Macmillan wanted to construct new democratic states which would remain in the Commonwealth and be disposed to Britain

Question 7

How did ECONOMIC CONCERNS contribute to the decolonisation of the British Empire?

Answer 7

• Britain couldn’t afford to maintain the costs of its empire
• They couldn’t afford to fight a series of long colonial wars to maintain their colonies
• The colonies grew more economically viable at the same time
• The Great Depression led to poor living conditions in Africa which led to growing discontent with British Rule

Question 8

What was Britain’s approach to its African colonies after WW2?

Answer 8

• No immediate desire to grant independence
• Wanted to develop them economically to benefit their post-war recovery through the Colonial Development Cooperation
• African colonies were reserved for extensive development initiatives

Question 9

What was the Burns Constitution (1946)?

Answer 9

• Established a Legislative Council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members
• It was a majority of elected Africans
• However the final power still remained in the hands of the British Governor

Question 10

How did nationalists in the Gold Coast put pressure on the British administrators?

Answer 10

• A wave of unrest spread across the country - protests against British colonial rule gathered momentum
• The Convention People’s Party (CPP) was founded by Kwame Nkrumah in 1949 - pressurised the British administration to make further concessions
• The CPP led a campaign of non-cooperation in January 1950 known as ‘positive action’
• The Legislative Council was enlarged and renamed the Legislative Assembly - the number of people who could vote for it increased but the British Governor retained ultimate power

Question 11

Which events led to the Gold Coast’s independence?

Answer 11

• Nkrumah in government - he was released from jail and given the position of PM to bring the troubles under control - proved it was possible for indigenous people to rule responsibly
• Togoland Plebiscite (vote) - in 1956, major vote in favour of unification of the Gold Coast - showed people supported independence (most people)
• Full adult suffrage - the 1957 elections were held on full adult suffrage - showed that the majority of people wanted independence
• The Gold Coast was given independence on 6 March 1957 - became Ghana

Question 12

What examples of nationalism and strikes in Nigeria
were there?

Answer 12

• 1945, strike involving railway and government workers - 300k people in Lagos
• The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons was formed in 1944 led by Nnamdi Azikiwe - aim was to gain self-governing for Nigeria
• Estimated that between 1945-50 over 100k man days were lost top strike action

Question 13

What was the Richards constitution? (Nigeria)

Answer 13

• New arrangements allowed for greater African representation in Nigeria

Question 14

What was the Macpherson Constitution 1951? (Nigeria)

Answer 14

• It extended the right to vote
• Created a National Council of Ministers - answerable to 185-seat Federal House of Representatives
• Each region (3 major regions) was allowed its own government as well as an elected assembly
• Made tensions worse between different ethnicities in Nigeria
• Growth in political parties based round these regions who began to compete for elections to the new House

Question 15

Which other reforms did the British find themselves pushed into? How did this lead to the granting of Nigerian independence in 1960?

Answer 15

• New political parties representing different ethnic groups and regions
• Britain found themselves being pushed for concessions more quickly than they had originally envisaged
• There were further revisions of the constitution and federal elections in 1954
• A government was formed consisting of 3 British officials and 9 ministers drawn from regional political parties
• More power was given to regional governments
• Federal elections in 1959 - after these moves made towards full independence in October 1960

Question 16

What events led to Gambia’s independence?

Answer 16

• After WW2 the pace of constitutional reform increased
• Received revised constitutions in 1954, 1960 and 1962
• General elections in 1962
• Britain granted full internal self-government in 1963
• Achieved independence in Feb 1965
• Member of Commonwealth

Question 17

What events led to Sierra Leone’s independence?

Answer 17

• 1922 - Britain divided Sierra Leone into a Colony and a Protectorate with different political systems
• 1947 - heated debate when proposals were introduced to provide a single political system for them both
• 1951 - educated protectorate leaders and powerful chiefs in the protectorate formed the Sierra Leone People’s Party - negotiated with the British to achieve independence
• 1960 - negotiation for independence
• 1961 - after talks in London, Sierra Leone was granted independence

Question 18

To what extent did British actions contribute to decolonisation in West Africa 1945-65? (British actions)

Answer 18

• British policy emphasised economic development which helped the growth of nationalism
• Introducing political reform increased the growth of nationalist parties

Question 19

To what extent did British actions contribute to decolonisation in West Africa 1945-65? (other factors)

Answer 19

• Efficiency of nationalists once they were given government positions - showed they were capable of governing
• Nationalist groups and individuals who were agitating for reforms and independence - got widespread support
• Demands for reform compelled British colonial administrators to introduce reforms faster than they had originally hoped/intended
• Ethnic tensions between groups in Nigeria - sped up independence

Question 20

What was Britain’s approach to its East African colonies after WW2?

Answer 20

• Economic development to make it more profitable
• Wanted to unite the Eastern colonies and make an East African federation to make it easier to govern and make it economically stronger

Question 21

How was nationalism in East Africa different from in West Africa?

Answer 21

• More violent in parts of East Africa
• Rapid economic growth brought urbanisation - greater political consequences, political activism, nationalism and labour disputes
• High inflation, poor housing and overcrowding fuelled protests

Question 22

What was the Tanganyika Groundnut scheme?

Answer 22

• 1946, Britain experienced a severe shortage of cooking fats
• groundnuts could be processed into cooking oil and sold worldwide
• Massive investment in tractors, equipment and construction of railways took place
• The terrain proved too difficult to cultivate and the scheme was abandoned in 1951
• Cost £49m
• The land was ruined
• Massive failure
• Provoked East African peasants into supporting nationalist movements

Question 23

Why did Britain grant Tanganyika independence in 1961?

Answer 23

• Julius Nyerere (leader of the Tanganyikan African Nationalist Union) demanded self-government - threatened strikes and boycotts
• Tanganyika had little economic or strategic importance

Question 24

Why did Britain grant Uganda independence?

Answer 24

• Tribal differences - Uganda seemed on the verge of becoming ungovernable
• They could only maintain control through repression
• Brian decided it was best to leave as soon as possible
• Granted independence in October 1962

Question 25

What was the situation in Kenya after WW2?

Answer 25

• Most valuable of Britain’s East African possessions
• The white population (50,000) controlled most of the best land and dominated the Kenyan legislative council - blocked black political advancement

Question 26

Why did the Kikuyu tribe resort to violent protest in the 1950s?

Answer 26

• Kikuyu had built up anger towards white settlers due to the way they were treated by them
• White people sought to mechanise farming and displace peasant powers - their anger erupted into violence
• Led to Mau Mau uprising between 1952 and 1956

Question 27

What methods did the Mau Mau rebels use?

Answer 27

• Killed 95 Europeans and 13,000 black people
• Intimidated people to take their oath (ritualistic oath of allegiance) and killed them if they refused
• Committed extreme violence - well planned and organised and fast and brutal (guerrilla attacks during the night)
• Lari massacres (night of 25-26 March 1953) - herded men, women and children into huts and set fire to them - hacked down those who tried to escape with machetes then threw them back into the burning huts

Question 28

How did the British put down the rebellion?

Answer 28

• Britain sent thousands of troops to Kenya
• Declared Kenya as a State of Emergency in 1952 - suspended all black African political rights and the Mau Mau were treated as political terrorists
• Kenya became a police state
• Black leaders imprisoned - including Kenyatta
• British ‘strike squads’ to carry out assassinations and massacred the innocent
• Kikuyu villages were uprooted and relocated - cut off Mau Mau support
• Mau Mau suspects routinely tortured to gain information
• Searches, curfews, restrictions, interrogations and forced labour
• Hola Camp - atrocities where 11 Mau Mau beaten to death and 77 received serious injuries
• Recruited loyal Kikuyu to assist British troops aided by helicopters and planes
• Britain sponsored welfare programmes to help ethnic groups who remained loyal

Question 29

What were the results of the British response?

Answer 29

• 11/1200 people were killed and 81,000 detained
• Some white people in Kenya were prepared to form a multiracial party
• Macmillan’s ‘winds of change’ speech of 1960 influenced by the Mau Mau rebellion
• Shift of policy towards independence influenced by the Mau Mau rebellion
• The new governor of Kenya paved the way for a move towards independence and black majority rule (granted in 1963)

Question 30

What were the consequences of the Mau Mau rebellion?

Answer 30

• Showed the colonial government were poorly equipped to deal with large-scale insurrection
• Over 200,000 Mau Mau fighters were killed during the emergency
• Jomo Kenyatta remained in prison
• The ban on African political movements was lifted in a conference in London in 1960 and a constitution was devised which gave elected Africans a majority in the Kenyan legislature
• Kenyatta released from prison and became the leader of KANU
• Kenya became independent in Dec 1963

Question 31

How did the Mau Mau Rebellion weaken the British colonial administration in Kenya?

Answer 31

• The British crushed the rebellion with great ruthlessness and successfully divided the Kikuyu people - this weakened moral authority and support for the nationalists (The Kenyan African National Union) increased
• In March 1959, 11 prisoners were beaten to death at Hola Camp
• Outrage in Britain grew as it emerged that no one would be prosecuted for the mistreatment of the Kikuyu people
• White settlers weren’t united so were not able to prevent the drift towards majority rule

Question 32

To what extent did the Mau Mau rebellion undermine British rule?

Answer 32

Undermined British rule
- British rule was supposedly based on equality and justice however some of the methods used were not - questioned British motives in Africa
- Criticised in the eyes of the world
- Part of the reason why Kenya was granted independence
- Strengthened nationalist movements in Kenya and across Africa

Did not undermine British rule/strengthened British rule
- Britain were now prepared for events elsewhere - it wasn’t going to commit troops to insurgencies elsewhere and became more conciliatory
- Successfully countered the rebellion
- Public supported it at first
- Easy for the British to portray the rebels as fanatics (backwards) because of their actions
- Lots of Kenyan’s didn’t support the rebellion

Question 33

What happened at the London Conference in January 1960? Why was this so important?

Answer 33

• Attended by white and black Kenyan politicians
• The ban on African political movements was lifted
• A constitution was devised which gave elected Africans a majority in the Kenyan legislature
• The principles of self-government under a majority rule were established - independence was inevitable
• Kenya became independent under Kenyatta in 1963

Question 34

To what extent did British actions contribute to decolonisation in Southern Africa? (British actions)

Answer 34

• Reports/Commissions led to reforms for black majority rule in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland
• Granting independence to Zambia and Malawi
• 1960 Cape Town Macmillan ‘winds of change speech’
• Creation of the CAF

Question 35

To what extent did British actions contribute to decolonisation in Southern Africa? (other factors)

Answer 35

• Black nationalist movements/protests
• White settler authority suppression
• Violence in East Africa
• Role of SA regime and Apartheid affects timing and British policy

Question 36

To what extent did Britain remain in control during decolonisation? (Nationalists had the upper hand)

Answer 36

• Nationalists played into the idea if what Britain said their aim for the colonies was
• Mass nationalists movements were difficult to suppress
• Often they had something that Britain wanted access to e.g. Malaya (rubber/tin), Egypt (Suez Canal)

Question 37

How did leaders apply pressure on the British government?

Answer 37

• Some were politicians that negotiated with the British
• Peaceful non-cooperation - influenced by Gandhi
• Violent protest or threats of violence e.g. rioting
• Forming political organisations and fighting election campaigns

Question 38

How influential were nationalist leaders?

Answer 38

Influential
- Led nationalism movements - often became leaders of the new nation states
- Widespread support for them in the colonies
- Influential in other places
- They had the opportunity to negotiate directly with the British

Less influential
- Britain was prepared to grant independence
- Not all nationalist members were supported by the people in the nation e.g. Kenyatta - conflict after independence
- Within African colonies there was fear that power would be seized by one tribe, region or religious. group
- Britain had the military power to hold nationalist movements in check
- Britain allowed the movements to grow through constitutional reforms
- Britain wanted to maintain some control despite decolonisation by deliberately choosing people they thought would create a stable situation

Question 39

Who was Kwame Nkrumah?

Answer 39

• Helped gain national independence for the Gold Coast
• Helped organise 5th Pan African Congress in London
• Formed Convention People’s Party which pressured British administration to make further concessions
• Became PM between 1953 and 1957 - proved it was possible for indigenous people to rule responsibly

Question 40

How influential was Kwame Nkrumah?

Answer 40

• General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Covention - goal of national independence
• Responded to demands for change
• Understood the importance of developing a good relationship with the British to gain confidence and support in order to establish a stable state
• Became a figurehead for African nationalism and helped coordinate various African independence movements
• Advocated Pan-Africanism - founded the Organisation of African Unity in 1963

Question 41

Who was Nnamdi Azikiwi?

Answer 41

• Helped create National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) in 1944 and became its leader
• Negotiated with the NPC to establish Nigeria’s first government

Question 42

How influential was Nnamdi Azikiwi?

Answer 42

• Compromised and won trust of a variety of nationalists as well as the British - crucial in facilitating the peaceful transition to independence
• Persuaded the British that it was possible for different regional ethnic groups to work successfully together
• Showed British rule was not essential to avoid a civil war

Question 43

Who was Jomo Kenyatta?

Answer 43

• President of the Kenya Africa Union (KAU) from 1947
• From 1948-51 he toured and lectured around the country campaigning for the return of land given to white settlers and for independence
• Arrested and imprisoned in response to the Mau Mau rebellion despite his connection to the Mau Mau being unlikely
• Elected leader of the Kenyan African National Union (KANU) from May 1960
• Released in 1961 - began negotiations with the British which led to independence

Question 44

How influential was Jomo Kenyatta?

Answer 44

• Helped force a relatively prosperous capitalist state and oversaw a peaceful land reform process
• Response to Mau Mau rebellion (imprisoning him) weakened Britain’s moral authority and increased support for nationalism

Question 45

To what extent did Britain remain in control during decolonisation? (Britain remained in control)

Answer 45

• Successfully fought counter-insurgency campaigns in Malaya and Kenya
• Able to find moderates to work with that joined the Commonwealth
• None of the countries fought against Britain - only parts of them did if at all
• All African colonies joined the Commonwealth (except Rhodesia)

Question 46

Who was Sir Andrew Cohen?

Answer 46

• Governor of Uganda (1952-57)
• Believed decolonisation was inevitable and wanted it to be a managed retreat
• Was deeply concerned by the treatment of Africans in the colonies
• Believed in listening to nationalists
• Believed in handing over power to indigenous officials with the superior knowledge of local affairs
• The Cohen Report of 1947 set out a new direction for colonial policy - gradual reform towards becoming an independent, democratic and stable nation
• Brought Africans into government and encouraged the development of political parties
• Expanded the University of Makerere
• Helped lay the groundwork for Uganda’s independence in 1962

Question 47

How successful was Sir Andrew Cohen?

Answer 47

• Most African nations progressed much faster than he originally envisaged
• The CAF ended in a failure
• His handling of Buganda (Bantu kingdom with Uganda) has been questioned

Question 48

Who was Sir John Macpherson?

Answer 48

• Governor of Nigeria from 1948-55
• He knew it was inevitable and introduced gradual reform
• Saw his role as a facilitator of self-rule and independence
• He moved the colonial administration to Nigerians
• He organised a major conference in 1951 to open discussions on a constitution which could accommodate the different regions and their competing political authorities
• The federal Macpherson Constitution of 1951 stimulated political parties

Question 49

How successful was Sir John Macpherson?

Answer 49

• He helped ensure that an independent Nigeria emerged in 1960 which did not collapse into separatism, anarchy or civil war

Question 50

Who was Sir Charles Arden-Clarke?

Answer 50

• Governor of the Gold Coast 1949
• Saw his role as a facilitator of self-rule and independence
• Secured the release of Nkrumah from prison in 1951 and brought him into government - key in defusing a volatile situation
• Managed relations between Nkrumah and Ashanti politicians who were concerned about the domination of an intellectual elite in a new Ghanian state
• Worked closely with Nkrumah
• Delayed the timetable for independence for independence to allow for a third general election under colonial rule in 1956 to allow Nkrumah to demonstrate that he carried the support of the people

Question 51

How successful was Sir Charles Arden-Clarke?

Answer 51

• He proved a skilled and practical politician in dealing with highly complex and swiftly changing situation
• He was held in such a high regard that he was asked by the Ghanaian government to become the country’s first honorary ‘Governor-Genral’

Question 52

Who was Evelyn Baring?

Answer 52

• Governor of Kenya (1952-59)
• Was committed to retaining control in Kenya
• He declared a State of Emergency in response to the Mau Mau rebellion
• He played an integral role in the destruction of the Kikuyu people during the brutal suppression of the Mau Mau uprising
• He proved vital in the government’s efforts to keep the violent realities of colonial rule from the British public

Question 53

How successful was Evelyn Baring?

Answer 53

• He managed to suppress the Mau Mau rebellion but his harsh methods weakened Britain’s moral authority and support for nationalism increased

Question 54

To what extent were colonial administrators well-meaning and driven by factors outside of their control between 1947 and 1967?

Answer 54

Well meaning and driven by forces out of their control
- Wanted to try and bring Africans into government to prepare them for independence gradually
- Concerned about apartheid spreading
- Wanted to ensue areas gained black majority rule

OR

Self interest and acting with their own initiative
- Gradual reforms helped to maintain British status
- Lack of cultural sensitivity in Buganda
- Arden Clarke released Nkrumah. and made him PM on his own initiative