9 - Avoidance and punishment Flashcards
1
Q
What is negative reinforcement?
A
- The removal of a stimulus (-) (usually unpleasant or aversive) following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength of that response
- Examples:
→ Rat runs to the opposite side of the cage (R) -> Escapes the shock (Sr)
→ Open an umbrella -> Escape the rain - Two behaviors are associated with negative reinforcement:
1) Escape behavior: performance of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus
→ p.ex: running indoors after the rain has started
2) Avoidance behavior: performance of the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring
2
Q
We first learn to ___, then we learn to ___.
A
Escape; avoid
3
Q
What is the shuttle avoidance task? Give an example.
A
- An animal has to shuttle back and forth in a box to avoid an aversive stimulus
- Example:
→ A rat in a chamber must climb over a low barrier to stop feeling a shock
→ a stimulus (light) is then presented for 10 seconds, followed by a mild electric shock
→ the rat can escape the shock by climbing over the barrier to the other side as it will quickly learn to do whenever it feels a shock
→ at this early point in the process, the presence of the shock is a discriminative stimulus that sets the occasion for the escape easier of crossing the barrier (this is escape)
→ Escape:
→ Light & Shock (Sd): Cross barrier (R) -> Removal of shock (Sr) - This procedure demonstrates that we first learn to escape from an aversive stimulus and then learn to avoid it
→ the shock is preceded by the presentation of the light, which means the light is a warning signal that the shock is about to occur
→ as the rat learns to associate the light with the shock, it will begin crossing the barrier whenever the light is presented, before the shock begins
→ Avoidance:
→ Light (Sd): Cross barrier (R) -> Avoidance of shock (Sr)
4
Q
Give an everyday example of escape and avoidance.
A
- p.ex: you first learn to make up an excuse to leave a conversation with a bad tempered coworker (escape)
- p.ex: you then learn to take a longer route to your office to avoid seeing the coworker (avoidance)
5
Q
What is the two-process theory of avoidance?
A
- It states that two processes are involved in learning an avoidance response:
→ classical conditioning
→ operant conditioning - This theory states that avoidance behaviour is the result of distinct processes; classical conditioning in which fear response comes to be elicited by a CS, and operant conditioning in which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear
- How can the lack of change reinforce a response?
→ reduction of fear serves as a negative reinforcer
→ during the avoidance process, the rat moves from one non-aversive environment to another to avoid a shock, this is a concept that is interesting to study
6
Q
Explain process 1 of the two-process theory of avoidance.
A
- This is the escape step, which we are less interested in because its more easily explained than avoidance
- Classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS.
→ On each trial, light (NS/CS) is paired with shock (US).
→ provoking CS. - Example:
→ Rat in shuttle avoidance procedure
→ Light (NS): Shock (US) -> Fear (UR)
→ Light (CS) -> Fear (CR)
→ the light that precedes the shock becomes a CS that elicits a conditioned fear reaction - Example:
→ Cat going to the vet
→ Carrier (NS): Needle (US) -> Fear (UR)
→ Carrier (CS) -> Fear (CR)
7
Q
Explain process 2 of the two-process theory of avoidance.
A
- Operant conditioning of a fear response to an SD
- Reduction of fear is a negative reinforcer for the response that produced it
- Example:
→ Rat in shuttle avoidance procedure
→ Light (Sd): Climb over barrier (R) -> Reduction in fear (Sr) - Example
→ Cat going to the vet
→ Carrier (Sd): Hide (R) -> Reduction in fear (Sr)
8
Q
What are some problems with Mowrer’s 2-process theory?
A
- In the absence of the CS, the fearful response should extinguish.
- But… avoidance responses are often extremely persistent so researchers have found that dogs would continue to job barriers to avoid shocks over 100s of trials, even though the shock apparatus had been disconnected and avoidance was no longer necessary
→ if the animal repeatedly encounters the CS, in the absence of the US, then fear of the CS should eventually extinguish, but it seemed as though the behaviour did not extinguish, therefore a good deal of conditioned fear is conserved because exposure to the CS are too brief for extinction to take place
→ Brief exposure might sometimes strengthen a conditioned fear response which would further counteract the process of extinction
→ Because fear responses are rapidly acquired, and subsequently avoided, there is no opportunity for extinction - This relates to the theory of incubation
9
Q
What is incubation?
A
- If you associate a fearful event with a stimulus, you will avoid that stimulus whenever possible
- Incubation is the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief exposures to the aversive CS.
- Example: each time you briefly encounter a dog, your fear response grows stronger
10
Q
Explain how avoidance conditioning relates to phobias.
A
- Avoidance learning appears to be a fundamental process in the development and maintenance of phobic behaviour.
- Example: If you were bitten by a dog, you may develop a fear of dogs might try to avoid dogs in the future
- This is why exposure therapy only works well if given longer time to interact with whatever is aversive, and over time get closer to the aversive stimulus
11
Q
What are some limitations to applying models of experimental avoidance to human phobias?
A
- Experimentally conditioned avoidance usually takes several trials.
- in experimental settings, avoidance behaviour seems to condition less readily than avoidance behaviour in a phobia
- Real phobias are often acquired following a single exposure
→ rat avoids shock by climbing over barrier whenever it sees the light —> in humans, people avoid the cs (person who has been attacked by a dog will avoid possibility of even encountering the dog)
12
Q
What is the approach-avoidance conflict?
A
- Events can be both rewarding and punishing
- When an event is far away, the rewarding aspects tend to outweigh the punishing aspects
- As the event approaches, the aversive (punishing) aspects increase more than the rewarding aspects
→ Punishment outweighs reward - Example: Agreeing to write a book chapter
→ Deadline: 6 months (rewarding)
→ “Sure, I’d love to be involved! It won’t be that much work.”
→ Deadline : 1 month (punishing)
→ “Why did I agree to do this? Nobody reads these chapters.”
13
Q
What is OCD? Give some examples of behaviours.
A
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a disorder characterized by:
→ Persistent thoughts, impulses, or images (called obsessions)
→ Repetitive stereotyped actions (called compulsions) that are carried out in response to the obsessions -
Example: Compulsive cleaning
→ A person may have an obsessive worry about contacting germs (obsession)
→ This leads to a compulsive tendency to take a shower and clean the house many times each day -
Example: Compulsive checking
→ A person might have an obsessive worry about whether she turned the oven off after dinner.
→ This leads to a compulsive pattern of returning to the kitchen several times a day to check it - People with OCD also have a tendency to feel personally responsible for events that are highly improbable
- People with OCD are usually unable to recall any particular conditioning event that could account for the obsessional anxiety response
14
Q
How does OCD relate to the two-process theory?
A
- Obsessions and compulsions have opposite effects on anxiety.
- Obsessions associate with an increase in anxiety, whereas compulsions associate with an decrease in anxiety.
- Example:
→ A person who has a fear of germs
→ a person who has a contamination fear and is a compulsive cleaner usually experiences an increase in anxiety after exposures to situations in which contamination might have occurred such as when taking out the garbage - OCD was once considered a difficult disorder to treat, but this changed when clinicians began analyzing it through avoidance conditioning especially when using mowrer’s two process theory of avoidance
15
Q
How can we differentiate OCD and phobias in terms of their avoidance tactics?
A
-
OCD typically involves an active avoidance response
→ Do something to reduce the anxiety.
→ i.e. A person with OCD will clean often. -
Phobic behaviour typically involves a passive avoidance response
→ Don’t do something to reduce the anxiety.
→ i.e. A person with a phobia will avoid contaminated areas
16
Q
What is exposure and response prevention (ERP)? Give an example
A
-
ERP: A method of treating OCD
→ Involves gradual increases in prolonged exposure to the anxiety-arousing event…
→ While not engaging in the compulsive behavior pattern that reduces the anxiety
→ Preventing the avoidance response form occurring should result in the eventual extinction of anxiety - Combines:
→ graduated exposure of systematic desensitization
→ prolonged exposure of flooding therapy - Example:
→ A compulsive cleaner might be required to first touch door handles and hand rails that cause low anxiety.
→ Then she must touch objects associated with moderate anxiety, such as garbage cans and dogs.
→ Finally she must touch objects associated with high anxiety, such as dead birds and dog excrement.
→ She cannot perform any compulsive behavior patterns during exposure
