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370 > 9-10: Epidemiology > Flashcards

9-10: Epidemiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is epidemiology?

A

It is the study of the distribution & determinants of health-related states or events (including disease).

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2
Q

Why is this study applied in health-related events?

A

It’s application helps with the control of diseases & other health problems. They are the factors that affect health/illness of populations

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3
Q

When we are referring to the “study” of epidemiology, what are we referring to?

A

The scientific inquiry: surveillance, observation, screening, hypothesis, testing, experiment.

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4
Q

When we are referring to the “distribution” of epidemiology, what are we referring to?

A

The frequency & pattern of health events in a population.

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5
Q

What are the 3 components of distribution in the epidemiology?

A

1.) The time: when these health events are occurring
2.) Place/Space: Where health events are occurring
3.) Population: Who is affected by health events (characteristics)

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6
Q

What stage of epidemiology are we referring to when our main focus is on communicable diseases?

A

Early epidemiology

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7
Q

What stage of epidemiology are we referring to when our main focus encompasses a wide range of diseases, health behaviors & health-related events?

A

Modern epidemiology

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8
Q

What does the epidemiologic triangle consist of ?

A

1.) The host
2.) Agent
3.) Environment

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9
Q

The host within the epidemiologic triangle encompasses what factors?

A

Intrinsic factors:

Influence an individual’s exposure, susceptibility response or resistance to a causative agent.

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10
Q

The agent within the epidemiologic triangle encompasses what factors?

A

Presence of the disease:

Though mere presence of the agent is NOT always sufficient for the cause.

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11
Q

The environment within the epidemiologic triangle encompasses what factors?

A

Extrinsic factors:

Anything that affects the agent & the opportunity for exposure by which favors the surroundings & conditions external to the host causing the disease to transmit.

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12
Q

A balance of ___ & _____ would allow an equilibrium in the environment of epidemiology

A

an agent & a human host

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13
Q

What would occur if there was an imbalance of agents in the equilibrium of epidemiology? (increase in agents)

A

1.) there would be in an increase in the ability of the agent to INFECT & CAUSE disease
2.) there would be ENVIRONMENTAL changes facilitating agent spreading.

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14
Q

What would occur if there was an imbalance in the human hosts population? (increase in human hosts)

A

1.) The proportion of susceptibles in the human host would increase
2.) The environmental change alters host susceptibility

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15
Q

How is “incidence” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the instances of illness commencing/or persons falling ill during a period of time in a specified population:
- reported as a rate

e.g: number of cases of the flu during a season

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16
Q

How is “prevalence” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the total number of individuals who HAVE the condition, at a PARTICULAR time, DIVIDED by the population AT RISK of having the condition at that time.
- reported as a proportion, not a rate.

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17
Q

How is “Point prevalence” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the proportion of individuals with the CONDITION AT A SPECIFIED point in time.

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18
Q

How is “Period prevalence” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the proportion of individuals with the condition at ANY TIME during a specified time period or interval.

e.g: annual prevalence, lifetime prevalence, one-year prevalence

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19
Q

How is “morbidity” defined in epidemiology?

A

Defined as the departure, subjective or objective, from a state of physiological or psychological well-being.

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20
Q

What are 3 ways to measure morbidity?

A

Asking:
1.) who is ill?
2.) What is the illness?
3.) How long is the duration of the illness?

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21
Q

How is “mortality” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the mortality rate: an estimate of the portion of a population that dies during a specified period

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22
Q

How is “recurrence” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the second episode of a disease occurring after the first episode was considered cured

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23
Q

How is “reinfection” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as a second infection occurring due to the SAME agent or section infection of an organ with a DIFFERENT agent or strain

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24
Q

How is “relapse” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the RETURN OF A DISEASE STATE after remission or apparent cure

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25
Q

How is “endemic” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as the condition that is PRESENT continually in the populations of a given geographical area

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26
Q

How is “epidemic” defined in epidemiology?

A

It is defined as a disease that is SUDDENTLY HIGHER than the normal incidence in a specific community or population.

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27
Q

How is “pandemic” defined in epidemiology?

A

Known as an epidemic over a WIDESPREAD AREA, that often crosses international boundaries.
They are the agents that is able to infect humans, cause disease in humans & spread from human to human.

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28
Q

Measuring the oral health status would be conducted by which 2 main methods?

A

1.) Selecting the method to collect data
2.) Clinical methods

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29
Q

What are the 3 factors of interest when collecting data pertaining the oral health status of a population?

A

1.) Information of interest
2.) demographics
3.) Purpose of the assessment

30
Q

What are the 2 factors of interest when utilizing clinical methods to determine the oral health status of a population?

A

1.) Basic screening
2.) Epidemiologic examinations

31
Q

What are dental indexes/indices? why are they used when measuring a population’s oral health status?

A

They are abbreviated measurements of the amount or condition of oral disease in a population

32
Q

What are the 7 attributes of a good index?

A

1.) Validity
2.) Reliability
3.) Utility
4.) Sensitivity
5.) Acceptability
6.) Quantifiability
7.) Clinical significance

33
Q

What does the “caries experience” record for dental measurements?

A

It records the DMFT or DMFS rating for both permanent & primary dentition.

34
Q

What does the abbrievation DMFT/DMFS represent?

A

D- decayed teeth
M- missing teeth (due to decay)
F- filled
T/S- “teeth” or “surfaces”

*depending on if capital letters are used, will distinguish between both primary & permanent dentition

35
Q

What does the “def” index measure in the caries indices?

A

d- decayed with no recurrent caries
e- severe caries indicated for extraction (not extracted)
f- filled due to caries

*missing teeth are not scored, regardless of reason

36
Q

When could we benefit from a “def” index over a “df” index?

A

When gathering information pertaining to the various grades of severity of carious lesions (greater sensitivity)

37
Q

When could we benefit from a “df” index over a “def” index?

A

When gathering information that has control for the subjectivity of scoring severity of carious lesion (has a greater reliability)

*indicated for extractions

38
Q

What does the “df” index measure in caries indices?

A

d- decayed with no recurrent caries (no differentiation of severity)

39
Q

What does the community periodontal index (CPI) evaluate?

A

It is a sextant evaluation by which a rapid perio status according to various grades of perio health.

40
Q

What does the sealant index evaluate?

A

1.) HAS sealants, DOES NOT need sealants

2.) HAS sealants, NEEDS sealants

3.) DOES NOT HAVE sealants, DOES NOT NEED sealants

4.) DOES NOT HAVE sealants, DOES NEED sealants

41
Q

What are the 3 types of epidemiological studies?

A

1.) Descriptive
2.) Hypothesis testing/analytic studies
3.) Interventional/Experimental

42
Q

What does a descriptive study encompass?

A

Encompasses looking at the world WITHOUT trying to change it.

*when data is often from existing information
*When survey is large groups of people to collect information

43
Q

What does a hypothesis testing/analytic study encompass?

A

Follows descriptive studies, but asks MORE specific questions.
- it’s observational, but MORE in depth.
- reject or not reject the hypothesis

44
Q

What does the intervention/experimental study encompass?

A

It tests the hypothesis through experimentation with some of the variables (independent vs. dependent variable)

*does the intervention affect the outcomes?

45
Q

Why is epidemiology useful? (hint: 7 points)

A

1.) To identify cause of disease
2.) Gives complete clinical picture of disease (mild to severe)
3.) To identify syndroms
4.) to determine efficacy of treatment
5.) To monitor health of community/population
6.) To identify at-risk groups
7.) To allow for predictions

46
Q

What are the 2 types of epidemiological studies?

A

1.) Experimental/interventional studies
2.) Observational studies

47
Q

What kind of epidemiological study does a Randomized Controlled Trial fall into? why is it used?

A

It is an experimental/interventional study.

It is used to test efficacy of treatment or healthcare service.
It. is random sorting of subjects into treatment (and control) groups

48
Q

In an RCT, what does a single blinded study involve?

A

When the subject does not know which group they are in.

49
Q

In an RCT, what does a double-blinded study involve?

A

When the personnel interacting with the subjects & subjects themselves don’t know which group they’re in.

50
Q

In an RCT, what does a triple-blinded study involve?

A

When subjects, study personnel & data reviewer are all blinded.

51
Q

What does the parallel type of RCT encompass?

A

Encompasses subject that is put in a specific treatment group.

52
Q

What does the crossover type of RCT encompass?

A

Encompasses subjects that is in one group & later, another

53
Q

What does the split body type of RCT encompass?

A

Encompasses subject’s own body & acts as a control (e.g: left gets treatment, right is control)

54
Q

What does the cluster type of RCT encompass?

A

Encompasses groups (specific schools) are selected to have treatment (or not)

55
Q

What are considerations to rule out when conducting an RCT?

A

1.) Ethics
2.) Drop out
3.) Difficulty studying rate events
4.) Difficulty studying outcomes in the distant future
5.) Is the population actually representative?

56
Q

What does a community trial study encompass?

A

It encompasses a group as a whole that studies & compares a similar community.

57
Q

What are the steps necessary to a community trial?

A

1.) select 2 communities that are similar as possible
2.) Obtain community assent for participation
3.) Survey to assess incidence of disease or risk factor
4.) Intervention
5.) Stop intervention & survey again

58
Q

What encompasses a case control study?

A

It used to compare a group with the disease & a group without (control)

59
Q

What is the meaning of a retrospective study? (case control study)

A

It is when we are looking at date before it was collected (like health hx’s & drawing a conclusion)

60
Q

What are the advantages of a case control study?

A

1.) quick
2.) Inexpensive
3.) Can evaluate several factors at once
4.) Good for rare conditions where a large cohort can’t be examined

61
Q

Why can a case control study be a disadvantage?

A
  • Because it may have selection bias.
  • We also cannot prove causation, only relation.
  • may have recall bias
62
Q

How is cohort study used?

A

Used when people with a certain condition or are exposed to a specific factor are compared with controls over time.

*can be prospective or retrospective

63
Q

What is the meaning of prospective in a cohort study?

A

It is the collection of date in to the future.

64
Q

What are the advantages of cohort studies?

A

1.) They can reveal temporal relationships between factor & disease.
2.) They can use primary or secondary data.

65
Q

What are the disadvantages of cohort studies?

A

1.) Lacks randomization
2.) Less control compared to RCT
3.) Expensive & time consuming (but less so than RCT)
4.) Selection bias
5.) Dropout rates

66
Q

What is surveillance & why is it needed?

A

It is the systematic & continuous collection, analysis & interpretation of data to know what actions are needed to be taken.

67
Q

How is surveillance distinguished from monitoring?

A

Surveillance is continuous & ongoing
Monitoring is more intermittent or episodic

68
Q

What are the 5 functions of surveillance?

A

1.) Collection of data
2.) Integration
3.) Analysis & interpretation
4.) Surveillance products
5.) Dissemination

69
Q

What does passive surveillance encompass?

A

When the criteria is established for reporting diseases, risk factors or health related events.

*Health practitioners are notified of the requirements & they report events as they come to their attention.

e.g: needle stick injury

70
Q

What does active surveillance encompass?

A

It is the criteria established for reporting disease, risk factors or health related events, but those maintaining the surveillance system initiate reporting -> when something unusual occurs to the populations.

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