8.1 Globalisation, poverty and inequalities

Question 1

Inequalities in education - Debates about the impact of globalisation

About how many children are not in school worldwide?

Answer 1

58 million.

Question 2

Inequalities in education - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Around how many children do not finish primary education worldwide?

Answer 2

100 million.

Question 3

Inequalities in education - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Has the gap between the rich and poor in education increased or closed in recent times?

Answer 3

Increased, with children from richer families being more likely to go to school than those from poorer families.

Question 4

Inequalities in education - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Which gender is less likely to attend school?

Answer 4

Girls are less likely to attend school than boys.

Question 5

Inequalities in education - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What does globalisation mean for children in less developed countries and their education?

Answer 5

Children in less developed countries can have better teaching and facilities through aid, growing prosperity and easier access to info via the internet.

Question 6

Inequalities in education - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Some people argue the model of education being spread worldwide is based on the western school system, what is this a form of?

Answer 6

Cultural imperialism, with schools conveying modern western values such as individualism and consumerism.

Question 7

Inequalities in income - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Income

Answer 7

The amount of money and other resources coming in over a period through wages, salaries, rent, profit on investments etc.

Question 8

Inequalities in income - Debates about the impact of globalisation

By the World Bank’s measure of poverty, how many people around the world were living in poverty in 2013?

Answer 8

767 million, around 10% of the world’s population.

Question 9

Inequalities in income - Debates about the impact of globalisation

How has progress been made in reducing poverty in some countries, such as Brazil, China and India?

Answer 9

Through industrialising economies.

Question 10

Inequalities in income - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What does Paul collier mean by the “bottom billion”?

Answer 10

Around 1 billion people in the world who are being ‘left behind’ in poverty.

Question 11

Inequalities in income - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What do globalists say about the “bottom billion”?

Answer 11

It exists because these countries haven’t globalised enough.

The continent of Africa has not integrated into the global economy as much as other parts of the world, for example.

Question 12

Inequalities in income - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What do sceptics say about the “bottom billion”?

Answer 12

They argue that the bottom billion have been made poor by globalisation, both in its previous colonial period and now, through neo-liberal economics.

The development gap has moved from being between the developing world and a small rest of the world to being between the great majority and the bottom billion left behind.

Question 13

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What are people in less developed countries at more risk to die of?

Answer 13

Infectious diseases.

Cholera, typhoid, TB, meningitis etc.

Question 14

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What is the globalisation of western consumer-led lifestyles changing worldwide?

Answer 14

The health of people.

Question 15

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

In more developed countries, what are people more likely to die of?

Answer 15

Non-infectious medical conditions, such as cancer of heart disease.

These are associated with lifestyle factors such as smoking, high fat diets, inactivity or stress.

Diabetes and obesity are also increasing.

Question 16

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

In less developed countries, who do communicable diseases particularly affect?

Answer 16

Children, who are often weakeneds by malnutrition.

As well as women/people with less access to healthcare, clean water, sanitation etc. in rural areas.

Question 17

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

How have diseases been brought under control in less developed countries?

Answer 17

• Improvements in nutrition/diet.
• Improvements in hygiene - piped water supplies and sewage disposal.

Question 18

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Why might people be more likely to develop medical conditions now than in the past?

Answer 18

Because of longer life-expectancies, they have more time to become ill.

Question 19

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

What do sceptics argue about globalisation and health inequalities?

Answer 19

They argue globalisation is creating new health problems in less developed countries.

Question 20

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

Why do sceptics believe globalisation is causing new health problems for less developed countries?

Answer 20

• Adopting western lifestyles - high in fats and sugars.
• TNCs market junk food/cigarettes.
• TNCs causing pollution.
• Poor funding of medical research into conditions affecting mainly poorer people.
• Pharmaceutical TNCs are reluctant to make their medicines affordable.

Question 21

Inequalities in health - Debates about the impact of globalisation

How are diseases of affluence (which are becoming increasingly common) putting more pressure on health services?

Answer 21

Unlike infectious diseases where the victim either recovers or dies in a short amount of time, diseases of affluence often involve long-term care and medicines as the patient lives with the disease.

Question 22

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Examples of transnational organisations (TNOs)

Answer 22

• The United Nations
• The IMF and World Bank
• The EU
• International non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
• TNCs

Question 23

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What is The United Nations?

Answer 23

• 193 sovereign states.
• Composed of political institutions, economic institutions and cultural institutions related to social issues.
• Main aims: peace and security, economic cooperation, dispute resolution and the promotion of human right/freedoms.

Question 24

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

The Human Development Index (HDI) (1990)

The United Nations

Answer 24

An attempt to combine social and economic indicators to assess and rank countries across 3 economic and cultural areas:
* life expectancy
* knowledge, as measured by adult literacy/educational provision
* living standards, measured by GDP per capital.

Question 25

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Strengths of The United Nations’ HDI

Answer 25

• Can measure indicators of ‘overdevelopment’ such as obesity and heart disease.
• Doesn’t talk about development/underdevelopment, but it compares societies using a set of objective, quantitative data that reflects qualitative criteria.

Question 26

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Criticisms of The United Nations’ HDI

Answer 26

• Less developed countries often lack the resources to keep accurate statistics.
• Needs to be used with other indexes such as the Human Poverty Index (HPI) that measures social inequality of the Gender Development Index (GDI) which reflects the fact that gender differences exist in most societies in terms of how economic/cultural development is experienced.

Question 27

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

The IMF

Answer 27

• Specialised agency within the UN, established in 1944.
• Global membership of 189 countries, each paying a subcription based on its relative economic size.
• Main purpose is to lend money to help member states overcome socio-economic problems.
• Provides advice, as well as funding, to encourage members to adopt “sound economic policies”.

Question 28

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

The World Bank

Answer 28

• Specialised agency within the UN, established in 1944.
• Provides 2 major services:
  1. Educational support relating to economic concerns, such as debt management etc.
  2. Economic support such as “low interest loans” to less developed countries.

Question 29

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What does Greenhill (2004) point out about the World Bank?

What does this mean?

Answer 29

“It is still lending money to developing country governments on condition that they adopt specific economic policies such as the privatisation of water, gas of electricity.”

This means not only is capitalism promoted, but a particular form of neo-liberal capitalism. This is based on the desire for the widest possible role for the private sector.

Question 30

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Typical measures included in structural adaption programmes (SAPs)

Answer 30

• Deregulation of private industry and the ending of restriction on foreign investment.
• Privatisation of state owned industries/services.
• Production of goods for foreign markets.
• Lower corporate taxation.
• Cutting government expenditure on social services.
• Currency devaluation that increases the costs of dmoestic good and services.

Question 31

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What outcomes has Hong (2006) argued the measures included in SAPs have led to for less developed countries?

Answer 31

• Increase in unemployment/poverty
• Increase in government/private corruption
• Social conditions deteriorate
• Negative environmental impact
• Social dislocation and unrest

Question 32

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What kind of country has SAPs benefitted?

Answer 32

Richer countries.

Question 33

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What do Dalmiya and Schultink (2003) argue some international agencies such as the World Bank and WHO have helped?

Answer 33

They have helped in raising nutritional standards and combatting disease in developing countries.

Question 34

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

Answer 34

Example of a major international political institution.

Established in 1995 with the aim of regulating world trade through:

• international agreements
• international trading rules
• dispute resolution between trading partners
• government-level negotiation of economic treatment.

Question 35

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What are multi-lateral aid programmes?

Answer 35

When individual states work together to provide aid.

Some aid goes directly from the donor country to the recieving country, but sometimes goes via multilateral agencies.

For example, the EU has its own aid budget, to which member countries contribute.

Question 36

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Aid

Answer 36

“Assistance given to promote economic development and social welfare across the globe,” according to OECD.

Question 37

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Forms of aid

Answer 37

• Non-repayable grants.
• Repayable loans that have a lower than current market interest rate.
• Repayable loans that are partly grants.
• Non-monetary assistance such as technological and military help, advice and training.
• Credit agreements between developed and developing nations.

Question 38

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Answer 38

Transnational organisations which try to tackle global inequalities.

Distinct from government/businesses.

They differ from IMF, WTO since they are private organisations (Malena, 1995).

Question 39

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What kinds of activities do NGOs pursure?

Answer 39

• Relieve suffering
• Promoting the interest of the poor
• Protecting the environment
• Providing basic social services
• Undertaking community development

Question 40

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Examples of NGOs

Answer 40

• Poverty reduction = Oxfam
• Business creation = One Acre Fund
• Humanitarian = Danish Refugee Council

Question 41

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

The growth of NGOs

Answer 41

• In the past 50 years, increased rapidly in type/no.
• The United Nations suggested there are up to 50,000 operating in less developed countries.

Question 42

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

What reasons has Robbins (2005) suggested for the rise of NGOs in recent times?

Answer 42

• New forms of communication, e.g. the internet.
• Increased public awareness.
• National governments channelling initiatives through NGOs.

Question 43

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Strengths of NGOs

Answer 43

• Can be more effective than governments in tackling inequalities.
• Can avoid problems of bureaucracy and corruption that can affect government aid projects, due to their size/nature.

Question 44

The role of transnational organisations in tackling global inequalities

Criticisms of NGOs

Answer 44

• Spend too much on administration, with money failing to reach those in need.
• Work too closely with governments/TNCs.
• Behave in patronising/exploiting ways, e.g. Oxfam workers scandal using prostitutes after earthwuake in Haiti.
• NGO aid is more successful at a local level than bringing about global change.
• Faith-based NGOs accused of prioritising converting people to their religion than fixing inequalities.

Question 45

Overall effectiveness of aid

Strengths of aid

Answer 45

• Important way for societies to stimulate the industrialisation process.
• Reconstruction projects can promote development following conflicts.
• Has helped to reduce disease, e.g. polio.
• Humanitarian aid has lessened the effects of natural disasters.
• Helps to** develop economic infrastructures**, e.g. sanitation/waste disposal.

Question 46

Overall effectiveness of aid

Criticisms of aid

Answer 46

• Developing nations locked into a cycle of economic development which mainly benefits companies from donor country.
• Neo-liberalists argue answer is “trade not aid”.
• Aid is often ineffective, e.g. building roads in countries where they cannot be maintained.
• Easterly et al. (2003), no significant factual relationship between “the amount of aid and the economic growth of the recipient countries.”

Question 47

Overall effectiveness of aid

How has Bauer (1971) argued that aid given to national governments benefits the ruling elite?

Answer 47

When aid is given directly to national governments, ruling elits use it to consolidate or strengthen their power base through patronage and corruption.

Question 48

Overall effectiveness of TNCs

What role do TNCs have in the economy?

Answer 48

The top 200 TNCs account for around 25% of the world’s daily economy.

Question 49

Overall effectiveness of TNCs

Strengths of TNCs

Answer 49

• Developments in education/training.
• Increases in capital incomes, e.g. chares, rents etc.
• Development of service industries linked to the primary TNC activity.
• Increases in government income for infrastructure and social welfare projects.
• Developments in technology.
• Employment and income increase.

Question 50

Overall effectiveness of TNCs

Criticisms of TNCs

Answer 50

• Vitali et al. (2011) found a very small no. of financial institutions at the centre of global networks.
• Some argue they abuse their market power.
• Producers who fail to comply to their economic terms are marginalised.
• Some TNCs avoid embracing human rights and environmental concerns.
• In some instances, TNCs cause social harms and poor countries find it hard to seek justice.
• Madeley (2003) concludes that TNCs have “used their money, size and power” to influence.

Question 51

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Modernisation theory

Answer 51

Early sociological explanations for global inequality are based on the idea that societies develop from being traditional to modern.

They are based on the idea that development follows a broadly linear path and that different stages are passed through.

Question 52

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What famous sociologists’ theories generally reflect the modernisation theory?

Answer 52

Comte, Marx and Weber.

Question 53

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What did Comte (1853) see development in terms of?

Answer 53

Ideological changes in how the world was explained.

Question 54

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What 3 stages of development did Comte believe all societies passed through?

Answer 54

1. Theological = religion was the main form of explanation.
2. Metaphysical = a transition stage between religion and science.
3. Scientific = “positive” scientific knowledge is the dominant form of explanation.

Question 55

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What did Marx (1867) see development in terms of?

Answer 55

Economic terms, societies moved from one stage to another as the means of economic production changed.

Question 56

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What 3 major developmental phases did Marx see unique modes of production characterised as?

Answer 56

• Feudalism
• Capitalism
• Communism

Question 57

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What did Weber (1905) see development in terms of?

Answer 57

A change from a traditional, or pre-modern society, to modern industrial society.

He argued that, once started, this was an inevitable process.

Question 58

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What did the development process for Weber feature?

Answer 58

• Industrialisation
• Urbanisation
• Rationalism- behaviour and organisation based on scientific principles.

Question 59

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What ideas about development did Weber, Marx and Comte all have in common?

Answer 59

That it was…
* Phased = different stages.
* Cumulative = stages build on the last ones.
* Linear = societies move from underdeveloped to developing to developed.
* Progressive = each new stage is superior to the last.
* Inevitable = modernisation, once started, could not be stopped or reversed.

Question 60

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

According to Rostow’s modernisation theory (1960), what 5 stages do all societies pass through?

Answer 60

1. Traditional society = religion, magic, agricultural production, rigid hierarchy, ascribed roles.
2. Preconditions for take-off = market place trade, aid, scientific developments, declining importance of agriculture etc.
3. Take-off = increased levels of capital investment and productivity, expansion of manufacturing, transition to democratic government.
4. The drive to maturity = production of a wider range of goods/services, development of service industries etc.
5. Maturity = high mass consumption, development of computing/communication industries, increased lifestyle choice opportunities.

Question 61

Modernisation theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Criticisms of modernisation theory

Answer 61

• Assume that the western way is the only way to achieve ‘development’.
• Coury (1997) argued that development is defined in terms of the western values of individualism, democracy, capitalism, science, secularism and stability.
• Whilst a linear approach might have been relevant to the first European societies to modernise, those conditions are different to the ones faced by contemporary socities.

Question 62

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What kind of view is the dependency/underdevelopment theory?

Answer 62

A neo-Marxist view of development.

Question 63

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Dependency/underdevelopment theory

Answer 63

Argues that underdeveloped and developing nations are kept in a state of economic dependency by the behaviour of developed nations.

Question 64

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What did Chaliand (1977) argue underdeveloped societies are dependent on developed nations in terms of?

Answer 64

• Producing primary products for consumption in the developed world.
• Gearing economic development to the needs of industrialised societies.
• Product prices being determined by businesses from dominant western countries.

Question 65

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

According to Chaliand (1977), underdeveloped socities are those with what kind of economy?

Answer 65

“Distorted and highly dependent economies”.

Question 66

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Why may TNCs from developed nations operate in underdeveloped nations?

Answer 66

To extract natural resources such as oil, or to exploit cheap labour.

Question 67

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Why may aid that is given to underdeveloped countries not actually benefit them?

Who might it benefit instead?

Answer 67

Aid is often given to help develop infrastructure that will enable TNCs to function, rather than to prioritise the economic development of underdeveloped countries.

Question 68

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Why may the lending practices of banks be a negative for underdeveloped countries?

Answer 68

The lending practices of the world banking organisations actually limit the ability of underdeveloped countries to modernise.

Instead, they are locked into dependent relationships with richer countries.

Question 69

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Colonisation

Answer 69

A situation of dependency in which one country controls and governs another country/territory through things such as conquest.

Question 70

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Decolonisation

Answer 70

The process that a country goes through to free itself politically from a colonial past.

Question 71

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Post-colonialism

Answer 71

The study of the legacy of colonisation and its continuing effect on less developed countries today.

Question 72

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What were most of today’s less economically developed countries in the past?

Answer 72

Colonies.

Question 73

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

How has a gradual process of decolonisation been carried out?

Answer 73

Through wars of independence and liberation.

Question 74

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What do dependency theorists argue there is now a situation of?

Answer 74

Neo-colonialism.

Question 75

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Neo-colonialism

Answer 75

Where dominant capitalist economies use their power to exploit the natural and human resources of underdeveloped countries to keep them in a state of dependency.

Question 76

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Despite direct political rule having ended in post-colonialist countries, how do underdeveloped countries remain tied to the former colonial powers?

Answer 76

• The support of (sometimes corrupt) local elites who make political/economic decisions in favour of dominant nations.
• Trade agreements that dominant nations have exclusive access to raw materials.
• Aid being provided on condition that the underdeveloped nation allows access to its internal markets.

Question 77

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

From a Marxist perspective, where do the inequalities in post-colonialist countries arise from?

Answer 77

Global capitalism.

Question 78

Dependency theory - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Criticisms of depency/underdevelopment theory

Answer 78

• Possible for colonies to have benefitted from developments to their political/economic infrastructure.
• In the post-colonial era, developing countries may still benefit from relationships with former colonisers with the later providing privileged access to markets, tech, expertise and capital investment.
• Some argue that it is an over-generalisation to argue elite corruption is widespread. A no. of indigenous political movements have succeeded in resisting this.
• Not all foreign aid is prompted by self-interest.

Question 79

Patriarchy - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What do feminists argue about both the modernisation theory and the dependency theory?

Answer 79

That they ignore the realities of women’s lives.

Question 80

Patriarchy - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Why do feminists argue the realities of women’s live are ignored in both the modernisation and dependency theories?

Answer 80

Because the work that women tend to do globally, within the household and substitence agriculture, is not included in the official data.

This work often involves essential survival tasks, such as grinding grain or preparing food.

Question 81

Patriarchy - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What is a reason that feminists argue women need to be brought into the world of paid work?

Answer 81

So that they too can benefit and contribute to modernisation.

Question 82

Patriarchy - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

How has globalisation led to an increase in the no. of women being exploited?

Answer 82

Globalisation has led to an increase in jobs, in which women are exploited, as well as to new forms of exploitation.

For example, Nike sweatshop factories have been found to have poor pay and conditions for workers.

Question 83

Patriarchy - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

What is the “Global Care Deficit” described by Ehrenreich and Hoschild (2002)?

Answer 83

Describes how millions of women leave developing countries every year to work as nannies/maids in richer countries.

This enables women from richer countries to work and pursue careers, but leaves a Global Care Deficit in developing countries, since women are working abroad and unable to look after their own relative/children.

Question 84

Patriarchy - Sociological explanations for global inequalities

Patriarchal backlash against globalisation

Answer 84

• Education of girls has been seen a threatening to traditional religious values (Afghanistan).
• Attempted assasisantion of Malala Yousafzai, who adovcated for education of girls.
• General increase in violence against women and sexual minorities as a part of a backlash against equality.