8 - Transport in Animals Flashcards
1
Q
What is the name of the valve between the left ventricle and the aorta?
A
Aortic valve
2
Q
What are 5 reasons that the circulatory system is important in animals?
A
- Metabolic demands of most multi-cellular animals high (so diffusion not enough) 2. Hormones/enzymes may be produced in 1 place but needed in another 3. Food digested in 1 organ system needs to be transported to individual cells all over body 4. Waste products need to be removed from cells and taken to excretory organs 5. SA:V ratio gets smaller as organism gets larger
3
Q
Which type of circulatory system do humans have?
A
A closed one
4
Q
Which type of circulatory system do insects have?
A
An open one
5
Q
What happens to blood in a closed circulatory system?
A
Remains in vessels at all times
6
Q
What are the 2 types of closed circulatory system?
A
Single or double (depending on how many times it passes through the heart per circuit of the body)
7
Q
What happens to blood in an open circulatory system?
A
It is not contained within vessels at all times
8
Q
What is the transport medium in insects called?
A
Haemolymph
9
Q
What does haemolymph carry and what does it not carry?
A
Carries food and waste products, does not carry oxygen or carbon dioxide
10
Q
What are some disadvantages of an open circulatory system?
A
Inefficient, cannot be controlled well
11
Q
How is blood pumped around the body in insects?
A
Heart is a tube-like structure travelling along the length of the body, with a series of valves along it. It pumps blood to the head, after which it flows back towards the rest of the body and drains back into the heart
12
Q
What is an example of an animal with a closed single circulatory system? (one where blood passes through heart once on each circuit of the body)
A
Fish
13
Q
How is blood pumped around a fish’s body?
A
Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the heart’s one atrium, then moves into ventricle. It is then pumped to gills, becomes oxygenated, then completes circuit of body before returning to heart
14
Q
Why is the single circulatory system inefficient?
A
Blood pressure drops sharply after it leaves gills, so hard to pump it round rest of body
15
Q
How do fish counteract the problem of having low blood pressure once blood leaves the gills?
A
By having their heart placed near their gills
16
Q
What is the function of arteries?
A
To carry blood away from the heart under high pressure
17
Q
What is the function of veins?
A
To carry blood back to the heart under low pressure
18
Q
What is the function of capillaries?
A
To take blood to individual tissues to allow gas and nutrient exchange
19
Q
What are some adaptations of arteries?
A
Narrow lumen, thick, elastic wall, high pressure, smooth muscle on walls
20
Q
What are some adaptations of veins?
A
Wide lumen, thin walls, valves to stop backflow of blood, little/no pressure
21
Q
What are some adaptations of capillaries?
A
Very thin walls (up to 1 cell thick), very branched
22
Q
Where does pulmonary circulation go to?
A
The lungs
23
Q
Where does systemic circulation go?
A
The rest of the body
24
Q
What are thin, branched arteries called?
A
Arterioles
25
What are venules?
Thin, branched veins
26
What order would blood flow through blood vessels in?
Artery--->Arteriole--->Capillaries--->Venules--->Veins
27
How is blood helped to keep flowing in veins?
The contraction of skeletal muscles and valves to prevent backflow
28
What percentage of blood is made up of plasma?
55%
29
What is the other 45% of blood made up of?
Erythrocytes, platelets and white blood cells
30
What is another name for white blood cells?
Leukocytes
31
What are 7 things transported in the blood? (try to name 4)
1. CO2 and O2 to and from the cells and lungs 2. Nitrogenous waste from cells to excretory organs 3. Chemical messages/hormones 4. Digested food from the small intestine 5. Platelets to damaged areas 6. Cells and antibodies involved in immune response 7. Food molecules from storage to cells where they are needed
32
What are some functions of the blood other than as a transport medium?
Helps maintain steady body temperature, acts as a buffer to minimise pH changes
33
What is hydrostatic pressure?
The pressure that the fluid exerts on the walls of its container (I.e that of the blood on capillary walls)
34
What causes tissue fluid to form around capillaries?
High hydrostatic pressure in the capillary (helped by them being narrow) forcing fluid out
35
Why can't large proteins or cells move out of capillaries?
Because the gaps in the capillary walls are too small
36
How is oncotic pressure created in the capillaries?
Water leaving the capillary via osmosis, whilst large proteins stay in the capillary
37
How is water pulled back into the capillary at the venous end?
Because oncotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure
38
What amount of tissue fluid doesn't return to the capillaries?
~10%
39
What happens to the 10% of tissue fluid doesn't return to the capillaries?
It drains into the lymph capillaries, from which it joins into larger vessels
40
What do lymph nodes contain?
Lymphocytes, which help the immune system
41
Where does the lymph system drain lymph to?
Blood vessels near the heart
42
What is tissue fluid made of?
Blood plasma, except large plasma proteins such as albumin which cannot pass between cells in the capillary wall, as well as glucose, oxygen, water, amino acids, smaller proteins, waste molecules and carbon dioxide
43
When does tissue fluid become lymph?
When it enters the lymphatic system
44
What does the tissue fluid contain once it becomes lymph?
Little oxygen, glucose or proteins, but some CO2
45
How is lymph drained back to the heart?
A system of valves, as well as the contraction of nearby skeletal muscles
46
Where are red blood cells found?
Blood only as they are too large to pass through gaps in capillary walls
47
Where are white blood cells found?
Blood and lymph normally, with most in the lymph, although enter tissue fluid if there is an infection
48
Where are platelets found?
Only the blood normally, only found in tissue fluid if capillaries are damages
49
Where are proteins found?
All in the blood, only smaller ones in the tissue fluid, only antibodies in the lymph
50
Where are water and dissolved solutes found?
The blood, tissue fluid and lymph
51
What is the valve between the left atrium and ventricle called?
Bicuspid valve
52
What are the valves between the ventricles and the arteries called?
Semilunar valves
53
What are the valves between the atria and ventricles called?
Atrioventricular valves
54
What is the uppermost part of the Vena Cava called?
Superior Vena Cava
55
What is the lower part of the Vena Cava called?
Inferior Vena Cava
56
What open and close the atrioventricular valves?
Tendinous cords
57
What is the name of the valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery?
Pulmonary Valve
58
Which ventricle's wall is more thickly muscled?
Left ventricle
59
What is the tissue seperating the left and right sides of the heart called?
Septum
60
What order does blood flow through the heart in?
Body--->Vena Cava--->Right Atrium--->Right Ventricle--->Pulmonary Artery--->Lungs--->Pulmonary Vein--->Left Atrium--->Left Ventricle--->Aorta--->Body
61
What are the arteries on the surface of the heart called?
Coronary arteries
62
What occurs during step 1 of the cardiac cycle?
1. Ventricles are relaxed 2. Atria contract, decreasing their volume and increasing the pressure in them 3. This forces blood through the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles 4. Slight increase in ventricular pressure and chamber volume as ventricles receive blood from atria
63
What is cardiac contraction called?
Systole
64
What is cardiac relaxation called?
Diastole
65
What occurs during step 2 of the cardiac cycle?
1. Atria relax 2. Ventricles contract (decreasing their volume and increasing the pressure in them) 3. Pressure higher in ventricles than in atria, forcing atrioventricular valves shut 4. Pressure in ventricles higher than in aorta and pulmonary artery, forcing open semilunar valves and forcing blood into the arteries
66
What occurs during step 3 of the cardiac cycle?
1. Ventricles and atria both relax 2. Higher pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery closes semilunar valves 3. Blood returns to heart, atria fill again due to higher pressure in vena cava and pulmonary vein. This starts to increase pressure of the atria 4. As ventricles continue to relax, their pressure falls below that of the atria and the atrioventricular valves open, allowing blood to flow in passively (without atrial contraction) 5. Atria contract, process repeats
67
In the heartbeat's 'wub-lub' sound, what is the 'wub' sound?
The atrioventricular valves closing
68
In the heartbeat's 'wub-lub' sound, what is the 'lub' sound?
The semilunar valves closing
69
What is systolic blood pressure?
Maximum blood pressure
70
When does systolic blood pressure occur in terms of the cardiac cycle?
After the blood leaves the heart in step 2
71
What is the name for minimum blood pressure?
Diastolic blood pressure
72
What does it mean that the heart is myogenic?
It can generate its own rhythm without nerve impulses
73
What is the full name of the SAN?
Sino-atrial node
74
What is the full name of the AVN?
Atrioventricular node
75
Where are the SAN and AVN found?
The wall of the right atrium
76
What is the purpose of the SAN?
It acts as the heart's 'pacemaker', sending out the first regular electrical signal which causes the atria to contract
77
Why can't signals from the SAN pass directly to the ventricles?
Because they are separated by a band of non-conducting collagen tissue, so they must go to the AVN instead
78
What is the purpose of the AVN?
It sends out another electrical signal slightly after the SAN (to allow all blood to flow from the atria), which is passed to the Bundle of His
79
What is the Bundle of His?
A group of muscle fibres responsible for conducting waves of electrical activity to the Purkyne tissue
80
What is the Purkyne tissue?
Finer muscle found in the walls of the ventricles
81
What does the Purkyne tissue do?
Carries waves of electrical activity to the walls of the ventricles, causing them to contract from the bottom up
82
In what way do the ventricles contract?
From the bottom up
83
What does a normal ECG look like?
Beats evenly spaced, 60-100 bpm
84
What does an ECG of a person undergoing bradycardia look like?
Beats evenly spaced but abnormally slow (<60 bpm)
85
What does an ECG of a person undergoing tachycardia look like?
Beats evenly spaced but abnormally fast (>100 bpm)
86
What does an ectopic heartbeat look like on an ECG?
Altered rhythm, extra beat followed by longer than normal gap before the next beat
87
What is atrial fibrillation?
Abnormal, irregular rhythm from atria, ventricles losing normal rhythm
88
What are the 5 waves in a normal heartbeat?
P, Q, R, S, T
89
What is the P wave caused by?
The contraction (depolarization) of the atria
90
When does the heart muscle depolarise (lose charge), contraction or relaxation?
Contraction
91
What is the QRS complex caused by?
The contraction (depolarization) of the ventricles
92
What is the main peak of the heartbeat on an ECG called?
The QRS complex
93
What is the T wave caused by?
The relaxation (repolarization) of the ventricles
94
When does the heart muscle repolarise (regain charge), contraction or relaxation?
Relaxation
95
How is an ECG produced?
By reading the changes in charge of the heart muscle using electrodes placed on the chest
96
What are some features of erythrocytes?
No nucleus, flattened and biconcave shape, contain haemoglobin molecules
97
What is formed when oxygen molecules loosely bind to haemoglobin?
Oxyhaemoglobin
98
Do oxygen molecules bind to haemoglobin loosely or tightly?
Quite loosely
99
What type of reaction is the binding of oxygen to haemoglobin?
Reversible
100
How many oxygen molecules can bind to each molecule of haemoglobin?
4 (so 8 atoms)
101
What is positive cooperativity?
Haemoglobin changes shape when 1 oxygen molecule binds to it, making it easier for other oxygen molecules to bind to the remaining 3 haem groups
102
What occurs at high partial pressures of oxygen?
There is a high concentration of oxygen molecules, so oxygen is readily taken up by the haemoglobin molecules
103
What occurs at low partial pressures of oxygen?
There is a low concentration of oxygen molecules, so oxygen is released by the haemoglobin molecules
104
What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli?
~10-12kPa
105
What is the partial pressure of oxygen in tissues?
~2-4kPa
106
What is the Bohr Effect?
The fact that oxygen is released more readily by haemoglobin when there is a higher concentration of CO2 molecules
107
Why is the Bohr effect helpful during exercise?
Actively respiring cells produce lots of CO2 and need lots of oxygen, so this naturally causes more oxygen to be supplied to them
108
What is the affinity for oxygen of fetal haemoglobin?
It has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin, allowing it to take up enough oxygen from the mother's partially deoxygenated blood
109
How much carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma?
Around 5%
110
How is 10-20% of carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
It is combined with amine groups in the polypeptide chains of haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin
111
How much carbon dioxide is converted to hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-) ions and transported in the erythrocytes' cystoplasm?
75-85%
112
What is the equation for the conversion of carbon dioxide to hydrogen carbonate ions?
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H⁺ + HCO3⁻
113
Which enzyme catalyses the conversion of CO2 and H20 into carbonic acid (H2CO3)?
Carbonic Anhydrase
114
How are the H+ ions created by converting carbonic acid molecules to hydrogen carbonate ions and H+ removed from the erythrocyte?
By buffers such as haemoglobin, which combines with the ions to form haemoglobinic acid
115
Why is the chloride shift necessary?
It prevents a pH change within the cell
116
What is the chloride shift?
Where HCO3⁻ ions are removed from the cell by exchanging them with more useful Cl⁻ ions
