7. security

Question 1

def of war

Answer 1

Organized violence between two or more political entities, which can include states and non-state actors (Nation-states (e.g., World Wars); Guerrilla groups; Terrorist organizations; Street gangs; Tribal factions)

Question 2

what is a ceasefire

Answer 2

A temporary halt to fighting, often to enable peace negotiations.

Question 3

what is conflict prevention

Answer 3

Diplomatic measures to prevent tensions from escalating into armed conflict.

Question 4

what is peacekeeping

Answer 4

Efforts to implement a peace agreement, usually with international forces monitoring the situation.

Question 5

what is peacemaking

Answer 5

Diplomatic actions aimed at reaching a negotiated settlement between warring parties.

Question 6

what is peace enforcement

Answer 6

The use of force or coercive measures to restore international peace and security.

Question 7

what is peacebuilding

Answer 7

Strengthening state institutions to reduce the chances of conflict re-emerging.

Question 8

what is preventive diplomacy

Answer 8

Strategies such as confidence-building measures, fact-finding missions, and deploying UN-authorized forces to prevent disputes from escalating.

Question 9

strategy =/ tactics

Answer 9

Strategy refers to the overall plan to achieve political or military goals.
Tactics are the specific techniques and manoeuvers used in battles.

Question 10

who said that n security of human collectivities (not just states) was affected by five major sectors

Answer 10

Barry Buzan

Question 11

what are the five major sectors of security

Answer 11

acc to Barry Buzan
1. Military security: the armed offensive and defensive capabilities of states and states’ perceptions of each other’s intentions.
2. Political security: states, systems of government and the ideologies that give them their legitimacy.
3. Economic security: revolved around access to the resources, finance and markets
4. Societal security: language, culture, and religious and national identity and custom.
5. Environmental security: the local and the planetary biosphere as the essential support system on which all other human enterprises depend.

Question 12

key security organizations and arrangements

Answer 12

1. NATO= 1949: military alliance to counter USSR during CW.
   After CW, NATO shifted its focus to broader security challenges, including peacekeeping, counterterrorism, and crisis management.
2. Warsaw pact= 1955-1991 (collapse USSR): military alliance of communist states led by USSR
3. Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO): Russia-led military alliance, 2002, with several former Soviet states-> mutual defense, counterterrorism, and regional security cooperation.
4. OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)
5. United Nations Security Council (UNSC): 15 members, including 5 permanent, can authorize peacekeeping missions, sanctions, and military interventions.
6. African Union (AU): continental body that promotes peace, security, and stability in Africa -> Has its own Peace and Security Council, which handles conflict resolution and crisis management within Africa.

Question 13

Origins and Evolution of the OSCE

Answer 13

*The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), in the 1970s during CW as a forum for dialogue and negotiation between Eastern and Western blocs.
*Helsinki Final Act (1975): agreement laid the foundation for cooperation on political, military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues between Europe, the USSR, and North America.
*Paris Summit of November 1990 redefined the CSCE’s role to focus on post-CW security (shifting from ideological confrontation to cooperative security).
*Institutionalization of OSCE (1994): At the Budapest Summit, the CSCE was officially renamed the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) to reflect its broader security mandate.

Question 14

Aim & Purpose of the OSCE

Answer 14

-> building and maintaining peace, stability, and democracy through
-Political dialogue among its 57 participating states.
-On-the-ground projects in security, conflict prevention, and human rights.

-Key Areas of Focus
*Arms Control: Preventing arms races and reducing military tensions.
*Counterterrorism: Coordinating efforts to combat terrorism.
*Good Governance: Promoting transparency and fighting corruption.
*Energy Security: Ensuring stable and secure energy supplies.
*Human Trafficking: Combating illegal trafficking and protecting victims.
*Democratization: Supporting electoral processes and democratic governance.
*Media Freedom: Promoting independent and pluralistic media.
*Protection of National Minorities: Ensuring minority rights.

Question 15

Conflict Prevention and Management of the OSCE (where is it active, in what does it engages, challenge of the OSCE)

Answer 15

*active in conflict zones such as South-Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus, and Central Asia.
*conflict prevention, crisis management, and post-conflict rehabilitation

*challenge= no legal personality, meaning its decisions are not legally binding and rely on the political will of member states for implementation.

Question 16

what is the Minsk group

Answer 16

group co-chaired by Fr, Ru and the US to facilitate negotiations and prepare conditions for a peace conference (for the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict btwn Armenia and Azerbaijan)

-> 1992: Helsinki Meeting: The CSCE initiated efforts to address the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
1994: Budapest Summit: Established the OSCE Minsk Group to work toward a peaceful resolution.

Question 17

what are the challanges and failures of the minsk group

Answer 17

1. Lack of Enforcement Power: no binding decisions
   => Armenia and Azerbaijan remained unwilling to compromise + OSCE members lacked the political will to enforce resolutions.
2. Internal Divisions among Co-Chairs:
   -France and Russia’s shifting policies weakened the OSCE’s ability to act as a neutral mediator.
   -Russia acted independently, bypassing the Minsk Group by proposing unilateral peace plans.
   -The 2014 deterioration of Russia-West relations (after Crimea’s annexation) further reduced the OSCE’s influence.
3. Western Inaction:
   -EU had an inconsistent approach and remained largely marginal in Nagorno-Karabakh, with France acting as its only representative.
   -US gradually reduced its involvement after 2008.
   -Western countries avoided enforcing UN resolutions that demanded Armenia’s withdrawal from Azerbaijani territory.
4. Limited Military and Peacekeeping Capacity
   -OSCE was not designed for peace enforcement operations.
   -Western nations were unwilling to send peacekeeping troops, even after ceasefires.
   -Only Russia showed willingness to impose peace terms, but its historical role in the region made it an untrusted mediator-> Ru’s growing influence

Question 18

The OSCE has failed to resolve frozen conflicts such as:

Answer 18

Nagorno-Karabakh (Armenia-Azerbaijan)
Abkhazia and South Ossetia (Georgia-Russia)
Crimea and Ukraine
Transnistria (Moldova)

Question 19

OSCE’s Declining Relevance (pas a connaitre juste lire pour se rappeler)

Answer 19

OSCE was once a key forum for dialogue and security cooperation but has struggled to maintain its role in the post-Cold War world.
while the OSCE remains relevant in diplomatic discussions, its actual impact on international security remains limited due to political fragmentation and lack of enforcement capabilities.

Question 20

UN Peacekeeping and the Cold War Constraints

Answer 20

*security council: designed to enforce peace (chapter VII UN Charter)
*BUT CW rivalries paralyzed it (frequent vetoes by the US and USSR: in total 193 substantive vetoes against security actions).
*failure to agree on a UN standing army (as originally envisioned) forced the UN to create alternative mechanisms for peace enforcement.

Question 21

Key Adaptations: How the UN Addressed Peace & Security During the Cold War

Answer 21

*Mandating a Third Party to Act on Its Behalf: if UNSC divided, coalitions of states to act on its behalf:
-Korean War (US-led coalition).
-Gulf War (1990): The US-led coalition

*Peacekeeping as an Improvised Solution
- not mentioned in the UN Charter, but the UN developed “classical peacekeeping” based on Chapter VI (peaceful dispute resolution).
-first major peacekeeping mission was in 1956: Suez Crisis, UN forces to oversee the withdrawal of British and French forces and separate Egyptian and Israeli troops.
-Traditional peacekeeping required:
A ceasefire agreement between conflicting states.
Consent from all parties.
Neutrality and non-use of force (except in self-defense).

Question 22

what is the chapter 7 (VII) of the UN charter about

Answer 22

Enforcement Mechanisms

*Article 39: UNSC determines threats to international peace and decides on necessary actions.
*Article 41: Allows for non-military sanctions (e.g., economic sanctions, diplomatic measures).
*Article 42: Authorizes military intervention if non-military measures are insufficient.

Question 23

Post-Cold War Evolution of UN Peacekeeping

Answer 23

end of CW = changed nature of global conflicts:

*interstate wars -> civil wars and ethnic conflicts (e.g., Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Somalia).
*UNSC became more active as CW vetoes declined (only 42 substantive vetoes from 1990-2018).
*UN peacekeeping forces increased significantly:
1990: ~10,000 personnel
1994: ~80,000 personnel
2018: ~90,000 personnel

Question 24

New Peacekeeping Trends Post-1990

Answer 24

-> Missions expanded beyond traditional peacekeeping to include:
*Intrastate conflicts (e.g., Rwanda, Bosnia, Somalia).
*Human rights protection and humanitarian intervention.
*Enforcement of peace agreements (sometimes without consent of all parties).
*Chapter VII-based missions, using military force to protect civilians.

Question 25

Examples of Post-Cold War UN Peacekeeping Missions (Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Answer 25

*Rwanda (1994): UN peacekeepers, during the Rwandan Genocide but lacked the mandate to intervene effectively. -> failed to prevent mass atrocities due to bureaucratic and political constraints. *Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995): -UN initially deployed a peacekeeping mission (UNPROFOR) but failed to stop the Srebrenica massacre. -NATO intervened militarily, showing the UN’s limitations in enforcement. *Sierra Leone (1999-2005): -A more robust UN peacekeeping force successfully disarmed rebels and stabilized the country.

Question 26

Four Fundamental Questions of UN Peacekeeping Evolution *What is security? *Whose security? *How is security achieved? *What is a security issue? => apply this to traditional peacekeeping (45-90')

Answer 26

1. prevention of another WW 2.States /Governments following a truce or ceasefire 3.Soldiers monitor truce/ diplomats negotiate peace / create political space for negotiation / consent /impartial 4.interstate tensions

Question 27

Four Fundamental Questions of UN Peacekeeping Evolution *What is security? *Whose security? *How is security achieved? *What is a security issue? => apply this to post-CW peacekeeping

Answer 27

1.Preventing local conflicts going international, fostering stability 2. groups, civilians in society transitioning from conflicts 4.Intra-state / ethnic /societal tensions (often with inter- state elements) 3. Preventive diplomacy / peacebuilding /military, police, legal andcivilian components

Question 28

Four Fundamental Questions of UN Peacekeeping Evolution *What is security? *Whose security? *How is security achieved? *What is a security issue? => apply this to recent peacekeeping

Answer 28

1. protection of individuals 2. People, sometimes in full- blown war zones,sometimes persecuted by their own governments 4. Intra-state tensions, human rights abuses,humanitarian catastrophes 3. Peace-enforcing / Notalways with consent or impartiality / humanitarian intervention / Interventions sometimes by ROs under ChapterVII

Question 29

UN Peacekeeping Today: Challenges and Criticism

Answer 29

1. Political Will & Veto Power: Example: Syria (2011-Present): Russia and China have vetoed multiple resolutions, preventing UN military intervention. 2. Lack of a Permanent UN Military Force: relies on voluntary troop contributions from MS, leading to logistical delays and under-resourced missions. 3. Inability to Enforce Peace Agreements: Many missions operate without the ability to impose peace (e.g., UNMIS in Sudan). 4. Failures in Preventing Genocide 5. The Role of ROs: Many recent interventions have been led by regional organizations like NATO, the AU, and the EU rather than the UN. Ex: Libya 2011 NATO

Question 30

UN Current Peacekeeping Missions (what are there core principles + how much missions nowadays wordwide)

Answer 30

today: Department of Peace Operations leads 11 peacekeeping missions worldwide. UN peacekeeping is guided by three core principles: 1. Consent of the parties → Peacekeeping forces require approval from conflicting sides. 2. Impartiality → The UN must not favor any side in a conflict. 3. Non-use of force (except in self-defense & mandate protection) → UN troops can use force only to protect themselves or enforce peace agreements.

Question 31

what are the 3 Key UN Peacebuilding Institutions

Answer 31

1. UN Peacebuilding Commission → Supports conflict-affected countries in rebuilding. 2. UN Peacebuilding Fund → Provides financial support for peacebuilding efforts. 3. UN Peacebuilding Support Office → Coordinates peacebuilding initiatives within the UN system.

Question 32

UN peacekeeping has faced major failures, particularly in:

Answer 32

Bosnia (1992-1995) → The UN failed to prevent the Srebrenica massacre, where over 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were killed by Serb forces. Somalia (1993) → UN forces were ill-equipped to handle the civil war, leading to the Battle of Mogadishu ("Black Hawk Down") and "somalia syndrome" Rwanda (1994) → The UN failed to intervene in the genocide, where over 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed.

Question 33

Key Characteristics of Peacebuilding= Strengthening state institutions to reduce the chances of conflict re-emerging.

Answer 33

*Goes beyond stopping violence → Stability is not just about ending war but ensuring long-term peace. *Addresses root causes of conflict → Factors such as poverty, ethnic tensions, economic disparity, and weak institutions. *Includes political and economic reforms → Often involves democratic elections, market liberalization, and judicial reforms. *Links to other international policies → Closely associated with peacekeeping, state-building, democracy promotion, and humanitarian development.

Question 34

Peacebuilding is based on liberal principles, which argue that:

Answer 34

*Democracy, free markets, and human rights can reduce conflict. *International institutions promote democracy by conditioning aid on political reforms. *Peacekeeping organizations were mostly created by liberal democratic states. *Even the UN and its agencies operated within this liberal framework, especially after the Cold War.

Question 35

criticism of peacebuilding

Answer 35

*i Many interventions claim local approval but operate with minimal local input. *Many NGOs are financially dependent on international donors, shaping their priorities. *Instead of serving their people, local leaders prioritize to foreign funders. *countries contribute troops for financial and political reasons rather than a commitment to peace. *Elites exploit peacebuilding efforts for personal or political gain.

Question 36

Types of EU Peacebuilding Agreements

Answer 36

*Association Agreements → Used for Southern Mediterranean nations. *Partnership and Cooperation Agreements → Target former Soviet states. *Stabilization and Association Agreements → Designed for Western Balkan countries. *European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) → Strengthens EU relationships with neighboring regions.

Question 37

3 key EU peacebuilding mechanism

Answer 37

1. Conditionality → EU offers benefits (ex trade agreements) in exchange for compliance with HR and democratic reforms. 2. Learning → Promotes institutional, political, and economic exchange between EU states and conflict regions. 3. Passive Enforcement → EU laws and regulations automatically apply in partner countries, reinforcing stability through legally binding agreements.

Question 38

what is R2P

Answer 38

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a global norm emphasizing that states must protect their populations from mass atrocities. -> If a state fails to do so, the international community has the responsibility to intervene.

Question 39

The Origins of R2P

Answer 39

1. Canada launched the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) in 2000, shifting the debate: *Away from the rights of interveners *Toward the protection needs of victims 2. ICISS established that: *States have a responsibility to protect (R2P) their populations from genocide, war crimes, and mass atrocities. *If a state fails to protect its people, this responsibility shifts to the international community. 3. In 2005, world leaders unanimously endorsed R2P at the UN World Summit, and it became part of a GA resolution.

Question 40

what are the 3 pillars of the R2P

Answer 40

The Three Pillars of R2P: 1. State Responsibility → Each state is primarily responsible for protecting its own population. 2. International Assistance → The international community helps states build capacity to prevent mass atrocities. 3. International Action → If a state fails, the international community can take peaceful measures (e.g., diplomacy, sanctions) or, as a last resort, military intervention under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.

Question 41

what are the 2 startegies highlighted in 2009 by UN general assembly

Answer 41

Narrow: Focuses on four crimes—genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. Deep: Uses all available UN tools (diplomatic, humanitarian, regional, military if necessary).

Question 42

R2P in Action: Case Studies (libya and côte d'ivoire)

Answer 42

*Libya (2011): -Resolution 1970 & 1973 UNSC responded to Gaddafi’s crackdown on protesters by invoking R2P. ... -Criticism: NATO exceeded its mandate, using disproportionate force that facilitated regime change. Russia claimed this influenced its opposition to intervention in Syria, fearing Western powers would seek to remove Bashar al-Assad. *Côte d'Ivoire (2011): -Resolution 1975: After post-election violence, the UNSC: .Declared Alassane Ouattara as president. .Authorized force to protect civilians from violence by Laurent Gbagbo’s forces. -Criticism: UN and Western powers used R2P as a pretext for regime change (similar as Libya).

Question 43

theorical debates on R2P

Answer 43

1. Realism (Hans Morgenthau) Realists argue that permanent peace is impossible. States act in their own self-interest, and military interventions often mask strategic motives. Example: Western states pushed R2P in Libya, but not in Syria, due to different strategic interests. 2. Neorealism National security is shaped by power balances. Intervention is often dictated by power dynamics, not humanitarian needs. Russia and China oppose R2P interventions as they fear Western dominance in global governance. 3. constructivism (nature of international security is shaped by social interactions and shared ideas) -> Anarchy is not inherently dangerous; it depends on how states perceive and act towards each other. If states view each other as friends rather than enemies, security concerns diminish. Changing norms (e.g., human rights, diplomacy) can reduce security tensions. 4. feminist approach: Challenges traditional "state-centric" views of security. Security studies have been dominated by a "masculine" perspective, focusing on military power and state survival. Gendered violence, economic inequality, and human security issues should be considered part of security studies. Women are disproportionately affected by war, conflict, and economic insecurity.