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PHGY 209 > 7. Cognitive/Motor > Flashcards

7. Cognitive/Motor Flashcards

1
Q

state of consciousness

A

level of arousal

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2
Q

how is state of consciousness measured?

A

by behaviour and brain activity

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3
Q

conscious experience

A

capacity to experience one’s existence

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4
Q

what does ElectoEncephaloGraph (EEG) measure?

A

mainly measures activity of neurons located near the scalp in grey matter of cortex

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5
Q

EEG components

A

frequency and amplitude

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6
Q

what does frequency refer to in EEG

A

levels of responsiveness

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7
Q

what does amplitude refer to in EEG

A

synchronous neural activity

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8
Q

relaxed EEG characteristics

A

slow frequency with big amplitude

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9
Q

alert EEG characteristics

A

high frequency with small amplitude: less synchrony

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10
Q

stage 1 NREM sleep characteristics

A

low amplitude

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11
Q

stage 4 NREM sleep characteristics

A

high amplitude, low frequency, more synchrony

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12
Q

what happens to amplitude and frequency from NREM stage 1 to 4?

A

amplitudes become bigger and frequencies smaller

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13
Q

REM sleep

A
  • Rapid Eye Movement
  • deepest sleep
  • dreaming phases
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14
Q

characteristics of REM sleep

A
  • increased eye movement
  • increased skeletal muscle inhibition = low muscle tone
  • increased heart rate and respiration
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15
Q

how does REM sleep appear on EEG?

A

low amplitude, high frequencies: resembles awake state

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16
Q

sleep apnea

A

sudden reduction in respiration in REM sleep due to high muscle relaxation: tongue falls back, blocking respiration and wakes person up

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17
Q

sleep cycle

A
  • spend 30-45 min cycling through NREM stages of sleep
  • go into REM sleep
  • cycle again
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18
Q

the amount of REM sleep we get decreases with…

A

age

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19
Q

what regulates the state of consciousness?

A

the circadian rhythm

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20
Q

Circadian rhythm is mediated by…

A

hypothalamus and Reticular Activating System

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21
Q

awake state regulations from hypothalamus and reticular activating system

A
  • reticular activating system activates aminergic neurons: norepinephrine and serotonin
  • acetylcholine production deactivated
  • hypothalamus increases histamine production
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22
Q

Asleep state regulations from hypothalamus and reticular activating system

A
  • reticular activating system activates cholinergic neurons: acetylcholine
  • norepinephrine and serotonin production deactivated
  • hypothalamus inhibits histamine production
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23
Q

what mediates behaviour?

A

motivation and emotions

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24
Q

what is the mesolimbic pathway?

A

reward pathway, motivation

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25
Q

what is the limbic system?

A

controls our emotions

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26
Q

what does the mesolimbic pathway involve?

A
  • dopamine as primary neurotransmitter
  • anatomically: locus ceruleus in reticular activating system + midbrain + prefrontal cortex
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27
Q

anatomy involved in limbic system

A
  • olfactory bulb
  • amygdala = emotional response
  • hippocampus = memory
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28
Q

declarative memory

A

conscious experiences that can be put into words

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29
Q

knowing faces, names and facts is an example of what memory?

A

declarative memory

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30
Q

where is short-term declarative memory located?

A

hippocampus + other temporal lobe structures

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31
Q

where is long-term declarative memory located?

A

cerebral cortex

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32
Q

procedural memory

A

skilled behavior

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33
Q

learning how to juggle or ride a bike are examples of which memory?

A

procedural memory

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34
Q

where is short-term procedural memory located?

A

widely distributed

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35
Q

where is long-term procedural memory located?

A

basal nuclei + cerebellum + premotor cortex

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36
Q

which hemisphere is language most located on?

A

left hemisphere

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37
Q

brain areas involved in language

A
  • Broca’s area
  • Wernicke’s area
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38
Q

Broca’s area is responsible for language…

A

production, articulation

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39
Q

Wernicke’s area is responsible for language…

A

comprehension (written + spoken)

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40
Q

aphasia

A

language deficit

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41
Q

parietal damage can lead to

A

sensory neglect of contralateral side of the world

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42
Q

sensory neglect

A

sensory information processed normally but is ignored/doesn’t exist in their visual field

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43
Q

limb extension..

A

increases the angle around the joint

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44
Q

extensor and flexor muscles during extension

A
  • extensor muscle contracts (agonist)
  • flexor muscle relaxes (antagonist)
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45
Q

limb flexion…

A

decreases the angle around the joint

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46
Q

extensor and flexor muscles during flexion

A
  • flexor muscle contracts (agonist)
  • extensor muscle relaxes (antagonist)
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47
Q

antagonist

A

relaxing muscle

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48
Q

agonist

A

contracting muscle

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49
Q

how is limb position maintained so there is no movement?

A

there’s a balance between flexor and extensor muscle tension

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50
Q

motor neurons key points

A
  • excitatory only
  • release acetylcholine
  • receive inputs mostly from interneurons in grey matter of spinal cord
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51
Q

2 types of motor neurons

A
  • alpha
  • gamma
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52
Q

what do alpha motor neurons innervate?

A

skeletal/extrafusal muscle

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53
Q

what do gamma motor neurons innervate?

A

muscle spindle/intrafusal muscle

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54
Q

spinal interneurons

A

receive information from many neurons to be transmitted to motor neurons in dorsal root

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55
Q

information received at spinal interneuron (6)

A
  • tension monitoring
  • pain
  • proprioceptive feedback
  • voluntary movements
  • coordinate complex movements
  • length monitoring
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56
Q

sensory afferent pathway

A

proprioception pathway: up the ipsilateral dorsal columns, branching at interneuron for inhibition

57
Q

motor efferent pathway

A
  1. descending motor commands (from brain) reach interneuron
  2. then passed to motor neuron in ventral horn
  3. motor efferent exits through ventral root
58
Q

purpose of withdrawal reflex

A

to protect limbs from injury

59
Q

2 parts of the withdrawal reflex

A
  1. flexion withdrawal
  2. cross extensor reflex
60
Q

Withdrawal reflex

A

Flexion withdrawal
1. painful stimulus: nociceptors activated
2. nociceptors go through pain pathway, branching before the midline
3. ipsilateral extensor inhibited, ipsilateral flexor excited

cross extensor reflex
4. nociceptors at branching cross the midline
5. contralateral extensor excited, contralateral extensor inhibited

61
Q

withdrawal reflex: ipsilateral extensor…

A

is inhibited: extensor muscle relaxes

62
Q

withdrawal reflex: ipsilateral flexor…

A

is excited: flexor muscle contracts

63
Q

withdrawal reflex: contralateral extensor…

A

is excited: extensor muscle contracts

64
Q

withdrawal reflex: contralateral flexor…

A

is inhibited: flexor muscle relaxes1

65
Q

irradiation

A

increase in rate and magnitude of withdrawal response with increased stimulus strength due to recruitment of interneurons

66
Q

afterdischarge

A

difficulty to re-extend limb even after pain stimulus removed due to feedback loops in spinal cord maintaining withdrawal

67
Q

withdrawal reflex is polysynaptic or monosynaptic?

A

polysynaptic: interneurons present between sensory input and motor output

68
Q

is withdrawal reflex contralateral or ipsilateral?

A

both: ipsilateral on withdrawal reflex (same side as nociceptive input) and contralateral on cross extensor reflex

69
Q

purpose of stretch reflex

A

to control muscle length

70
Q

stretch reflex steps

A
  1. tap below knee cap gently
  2. activation of stretch receptor
  3. stretch receptor pulls on patella, pulling on stretch extensor muscle
  4. muscle length reported through proprioception pathway: ipsilateral dorsal columns
  5. monosynaptic and polysynaptic branching in grey cortex:
    - excitatory synapse on motor neurons innervating ipsilateral extensor
    - inhibitory synapse through interneuron inhibiting ipsilateral flexor
  6. leg kicks
71
Q

how is muscle length reported?

A
  • muscle spindle is in parallel with extrafusal muscle fiber so both are always the same length
  • muscle lengthens = muscle spindle lengthens = increase in muscle spindle afferent activity
  • reported to CNS
72
Q

extrafusal muscle fibers are activated by…

A

alpha motor neurons

73
Q

intrafusal muscle fibers are activated by…

A

gamma motor neurons

74
Q

what do extrafusal muscle fiber produce?

A

force creating movement

75
Q

Ia primary afferents

A

signal dynamic changes in muscle length due to stimulus changes
–> rapidly adapting

76
Q

II secondary afferents

A

signal static muscle length (position)
–> non-adapating

77
Q

which afferent (Ia or II) mediates the stretch reflex?

A

Ia primary afferents

78
Q

how is muscle flexion generated?

A
  • alpha motor neuron activity commands muscles to shorten
  • muscle spindle also shortens
  • muscle spindle collapses: sensitivity reduced so receptor stops working
79
Q

how is spindle sensitivity maintained?

A

by alpha-gamma coactivation: gamma motor neurons cause intrafusal fibers to contract, stretching the muscle spindle

80
Q

properties of stretch reflex

A
  • resists changes in muscle length: sets muscle tone
  • mono and polysynaptic
  • feedback from muscle spindles
81
Q

properties of muscle spindles

A
  • report muscle length
  • in parallel with extrafusal muscle fibers
  • intrafusal muscle fibers maintain muscle spindle sensitivity
  • alpha-gamma coactivation
  • Ia and II afferents
82
Q

purpose of inverse stretch reflex

A

to control muscle tension (voluntarily)

83
Q

organ involved in inverse stretch reflex

A

golgi tendon organ

84
Q

organ that responds to tension

A

golgi tendon organ

85
Q

properties of golgi tendon organ

A
  • in series with extrafusal muscle fibers
  • reports muscle tension
  • Ib afferents
  • underlines inverse stretch reflex
86
Q

how does golgi tendon organ control muscle tension?

A

when tension increases, collagen fibers looping around the free nerve endings pinch the free nerve endings, activating mechanically-gated ion channels

87
Q

inverse stretch reflex steps

A
  1. muscle contracts, increasing tension in extensor muscle
  2. activation of golgi tendon organ
  3. causes increased Ib afferent activity sending AP through dorsal root/column
  4. branching in grey matter:
    - excitation of motor neurons innervating ipsilateral flexor
    - inhibition of motor neurons innervating ipsilateral extensor
88
Q

inverse stretch reflex is polysnaptic or monosynaptic?

A

polysynaptic

89
Q

stretch reflex is polysnaptic or monosynaptic?

A

both

90
Q

inverse stretch reflex: ipsilateral flexor

A

contracts

91
Q

inverse stretch reflex: ipsilateral extensor

A

relaxes

92
Q

motor control hierarchy

A
  1. higher centres consciously initiate movement
  2. 2 main pathways down brainstem and spinal cord
  3. motor neurons innervate muscle fibres or cranial muscles in brainstem
93
Q

sensorimotor cortex =

A

primary motor cortex + somatosensory cortex

94
Q

middle level composed of:

A
  • sensorimotor cortex
  • basal nuclei
  • thalamus
  • brainstem
  • cerebellum
95
Q

local level

A

brainstem and spinal cord

96
Q

why is there an involuntary component to voluntary movements?

A
  • to execute individual muscle contractions
  • to make corrections based on sensory information while the movement is being executed
97
Q

2 major pathways down the spinal cord

A
  • corticospinal
  • extrapyrimidal
98
Q

Corticospinal pathway contols

A

skilled movements

99
Q

Extrapyrimidal pathway controls

A

trunk and posture

100
Q

voluntary control of movement steps

A
  1. consciously initiate a movement
  2. at premotor cortex: motion decomposed into individual muscle contractions required
  3. at primary motor cortex neurons send information down spinal cord
  4. somatosensory cortex regulates movement to sensory information received
101
Q

central sulcus separates… from…

A

primary motor cortex from somatosensory cortex

102
Q

somatotopic motor representation

A

size of body structures in primary motor cortex is proportional to the number of neurons dedicated to their motor control and to the degree of skill required to operate that area

103
Q

corticospinal descending pathway

A
  • originates in primary motor cortex
  • compact, discrete fiber tract direct to spinal cord: directly involves alpha and gamma motor neurons and branching at interneuron
  • crossed at medulla –> controls contralateral muscles
  • extremities: mostly hands and feet
  • controls skilled movements
104
Q

corticospical descending pathway is mono or polysynaptic?

A

both

105
Q

corticospinal controls ipsilateral or contralateral muscles?

A

contralateral

106
Q

extrapyramidal descending pathway

A
  • originates from neurons in brainstem
  • diffused and indirect: several descending tracts via brainstem, only innervating interneurons in spinal cord
  • crossed and uncrossed –> controls contralateral and ipsilateral muscles
  • trunk + postural muscles
  • controls upright posture, balance, and walking unconsciously
107
Q

extrapyrimidal descending pathway is mono or polysynaptic?

A

polysynaptic

108
Q

extrapyramidal controls ipsilateral or contralateral muscles?

A

both

109
Q

muscle tone

A

resistance of skeletal muscle to stretch

110
Q

how is normal muscle tone reflected on stretch reflex?

A

slight and uniform reflex

111
Q

consequences of damage to motor descending pathways

A
  • hypertonia
  • spasticity
  • rigidity
112
Q

hypertonia

A

abnormally high muscle tone

113
Q

spasticity

A

overactive motor reflexes

114
Q

rigidity reflects

A

constant muscle contraction

115
Q

why is stretch reflex much stronger when there is damage to descending pathways?

A

descending pathway branches into interneurons, which are mostly inhibitory
–> damage means no more inhibition of those interneurons

116
Q

consequences of damage to motor neurons

A
  • hypotonia
  • atrophy
  • decreased or missing reflexes
117
Q

hypotonia

A

abnormally low muscle tone

118
Q

atrophy

A

loss of muscle mass

119
Q

basal nuclei

A

collection of cell bodies in CNS

120
Q

basal nuclei function

A

helps determine specific movements needed to accomplish a desired action

121
Q

2 basal nuclei movement disorders

A
  • Parkinson disease
  • Huntington disease
122
Q

Parkinson disease

A

reduced dopamine input to basal nuclei

123
Q

Parkinson’s symptoms

A
  • akinesia
  • bradykinesia
  • muscular rigidity
  • resting tremor
124
Q

akinesia

A

reduced movements

125
Q

bradykinesia

A

slow movements

126
Q

resting tremor

A

tremor stops only when person makes a movement with that shaking limb

127
Q

Parkinson disease treatment

A

increasing dopamine concentrations in the brain
-> no cure

128
Q

Huntington disease

A

genetic mutation that causes widespread loss of neurons in the brain, mostly in the basal nuclei

129
Q

Huntington’s symptoms

A
  • hyperkinetic disorder
  • choreiform movements
130
Q

hyperkinetic disorder

A

excessive motor movements

131
Q

choreiform movements

A

jerky, random involuntary movements of limbs and face

132
Q

cerebellum functions

A

movement timing, planning and error correction + learning new motor slills

133
Q

how is cerebellum linked to sensation?

A

it receives sensory information that goes through the brainstem (next to each other so information shared)

134
Q

cerebellar deficits

A
  • asynergia
  • dysmetria
  • ataxia
  • intention tremor
135
Q

asynergia

A

Smoot movements broken down into their individual components

136
Q

dysmetria

A

unable to target movements correctly when trying to reach for something

137
Q

ataxia

A

incoordination of muscle groups –> awkward gate

138
Q

intention tremor

A

tremor only during voluntary movements

139
Q

what is a symptom that isn’t seen in patients with cerebellar deficits?

A

paralysis or weakness
–> still independent but can’t learn skilled movements

PHGY 209 (8 decks)

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