6.7: Infradian rhythms Flashcards
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks)
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
What is one of the most effective treatments for SAD?
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
What is this?
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
What is it thought to do?
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
First AO3 PEEL paragraph
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment)
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
What does this do?
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this,
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
Why is this?
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
What does this show?
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
Second AO3 PEEL paragraph
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
What does this mean?
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
Why does this matter?
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However,
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
What does this show?
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
Third AO3 PEEL paragraph
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
Example
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
What would this mean?
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
Who is this supported by?
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
What would this fit in with?
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
What does this illustrate?
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
Fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus,
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
Example
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring.
Why does this matter?
This matters because it suggests that evolutionary reasons for synchronisation are invalid - if synchronisation does indeed actually occur, it must be for other reasons yet to be explored
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring.
This matters because it suggests that evolutionary reasons for synchronisation are invalid - if synchronisation does indeed actually occur, it must be for other reasons yet to be explored.
Fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph
The fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that much of the knowledge of the effects of pheromones on behaviour is derived from animal studies
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring.
This matters because it suggests that evolutionary reasons for synchronisation are invalid - if synchronisation does indeed actually occur, it must be for other reasons yet to be explored.
The fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that much of the knowledge of the effects of pheromones on behaviour is derived from animal studies.
It is therefore
It is therefore harder to generalise the findings to humans
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring.
This matters because it suggests that evolutionary reasons for synchronisation are invalid - if synchronisation does indeed actually occur, it must be for other reasons yet to be explored.
The fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that much of the knowledge of the effects of pheromones on behaviour is derived from animal studies.
It is therefore harder to generalise the findings to humans.
The role of pheromones in animal sexual selection is well-documented, such as how sea urchins release pheromones into the surrounding water so other urchins in the colony will eject their sex cells simultaneously
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring.
This matters because it suggests that evolutionary reasons for synchronisation are invalid - if synchronisation does indeed actually occur, it must be for other reasons yet to be explored.
The fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that much of the knowledge of the effects of pheromones on behaviour is derived from animal studies.
It is therefore harder to generalise the findings to humans.
The role of pheromones in animal sexual selection is well-documented, such as how sea urchins release pheromones into the surrounding water so other urchins in the colony will eject their sex cells simultaneously.
In contrast,
In contrast, evidence for the effects in human behaviour remains, at best, speculative and inconclusive
Discuss research into infradian and/or ultradian rhythms (16 marks).
Research into infradian rhythms suggests that although the menstrual cycle is an endogenous system, it may be influenced by exogenous factors, such as the cycles of other women.
Kathleen Stern and Martha McClintock (1998) demonstrated how menstrual cycles may synchronise as a result of the influence of female pheromones.
McClintock involved 29 women with a history of irregular periods.
Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via a cotton pad placed in their armpit.
The pads were worn for at least 8 hours to ensure that pheromones were picked up and the pads were treated with alcohol and frozen, to be rubbed on the upper lip of the other participants.
On day one, pads from the start of the menstrual cycle were applied to all 20 women, on day two they were all given a pad from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
McClintock found that 68% of the women experienced a shift in their menstrual cycle towards that of the donor.
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a depressive disorder that has a seasonal pattern of onset and is described and diagnosed as a mental disorder in DSM-5.
One of the most effective treatments for SAD is phototherapy.
This is a lightbox that simulates very strong light in the morning and evening.
It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD.
Eastman et al. (1998) found that this relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers.
The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, Eastman et al. also recorded a placebo effect of 30% using a ‘sham negative-ion generator’ (participants were told it was another form of treatment).
This casts doubts on the chemical influence of phototherapy.
Despite this, Eastman et al’s research has economic implications in the area of shift work.
This is because companies could provide light for their employees, for example how hospitals have special lights to ensure the doctors and nurses stay awake, alert and productive late at night or in the early hours of the morning.
This shows that research into infradian rhythms has useful real world application.
The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that as well as this, one limitation of McClintock and Stern’s study was that there were many confounding variables that could’ve affected change in a woman’s menstrual cycle, such as stress, changes in diet, exercise and stress.
This means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.
Synchronisation studies also typically involve small samples of women and rely on participants self-reporting the onset of their own cycle, meaning that the results gained may not be valid, due to social desirability bias, for example, as the women would’ve been aware they were taking part in research.
The confounding variables present also mean that the research is difficult to replicate and this is supported by Trevathan et al. (1993), who replicated McClintock’s study, but failed to find any supporting evidence of menstrual synchrony.
This matters because although menstruation is an internal mechanism, McClintock’s research suggests that the variations could be explained by external factors.
However, Travethen’s research suggests that synchronisation because of exposure to pheromones is unlikely.
This shows that the extent to which pheromones can have an effect still requires research, as supported by Wilson (1992), who challenged the idea of menstrual synchronicity, stating that experimental evidence of its existence was exaggerated.
The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that Furthmore, research such as McClintock and Stern’s raises questions about the role of synchronisation.
Menstrual synchrony is thought by many to have evolutionary advantages and increase survival rates.
For example, for our ancestors, it may have been advantageous for females to menstruate together and therefore fall pregnant around the same time.
This would mean that they could raise children together, meaning that newborns could be cared for collectively within a social group, increasing the chances of their survival.
This is supported by Turke, who argues that that synchonrised periods have an evolutionary signifiance, because it allowed women living together to share child-caring duties.
This would fit in with the evolutionary approach that we have adapted accordingly to increase chances of survival for children.
This illustrates the evolutionary basis of the menstrual cycle.
The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that However, how close women have to live together and for what period of time for menstrual synchronisation to occur is not clear.
Thus, the validity of the evolutionary perspective has been questioned by some.
For example, Schank (2004) argues that if there were too many females cycling together within a social group, this would produce too much mate competition for the highest quality males, thereby lowering the fitness and health potential of any potential offspring.
This matters because it suggests that evolutionary reasons for synchronisation are invalid - if synchronisation does indeed actually occur, it must be for other reasons yet to be explored.
The fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that much of the knowledge of the effects of pheromones on behaviour is derived from animal studies.
It is therefore harder to generalise the findings to humans.
The role of pheromones in animal sexual selection is well-documented, such as how sea urchins release pheromones into the surrounding water so other urchins in the colony will eject their sex cells simultaneously.
In contrast, evidence for the effects in human behaviour remains, at best, speculative and inconclusive.
What does this show?
This shows that due to the insufficient evidence for humans, it would be reductionist to draw conclusions about human behaviour from animal research
