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Biology > 6:2:1 Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

6:2:1 Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

Examples of natural cloning in plants.

A

Vegetative propagation
- Runners
- Rhizomes
- Bulbs
- Stem tubers

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2
Q

Define vegetative reproduction.

A

The asexual reproduction of plants using meristem cells, to produce ‘clones’ attached to the parent plant.

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3
Q

Examples of artificial cloning in plants.

A
  • Cuttings
  • Grafting
  • Micropropagation
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4
Q

Define vegetative propagation.

A

The production of structures in an organism that can grow into new individual organisms. (Clones of the parent).

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5
Q

What is a runner (with example)?

A

A lateral stem which grows from a parent plant and touches the ground forming adventitious roots, growing a new plant. (Strawberry plants).

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6
Q

What is a rhizome (with example)?

A

A horizontal stem running shallowly underground, developing buds which form vertical shoots. (Marram grass).

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7
Q

What is a bulb (with example)?

A

Swollen leaf bases which form buds which develop into shoots. (Onion).

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8
Q

What is a stem tuber (with example)?

A

A stem deep underground, which is swollen with starchy food, forming a tuber which buds to form shoots. (Potato).

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9
Q

What are the advantages of natural cloning (eg English Elm)?

A

They can form root suckers or basal sprouts after damage has been done to the parent plant, so the plant can propagate quickly allowing the species to survive catastrophes.

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10
Q

What are the disadvantages of natural cloning (eg English Elm)?

A

The plant can only propagate in the season that it grows in.
Since the plants are genetically identical, they are very susceptible to disease such as Dutch elm disease.

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11
Q

Outline the process of taking plant cuttings.

A

Stem cuttings come from healthy and disease free plants, consisting of newer growth. The cut will be made with a clean and sharp blade through the xylem and phloem so that the plant can receive water via osmosis when placed in soil with hormone rooting powder (consisting of auxins and gibberellins) to trigger root hair cell so the plant can ‘switch on’ the root hair cell development, and ‘switch off’ the stem cell growth.

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12
Q

Outline the process of grafting.

A

A well adapted parent plant is placed into the base plant, and then sealed together. The parent plant is then able to grow, as the xylem and phloem have fused together.

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13
Q

Outline the process of Micropropagation/tissue culture.

A

A collective term referring to procedures used to maintain and grow plant cells and organs in aseptic (sterile) conditions.
Micropropagation includes taking tissue samples (explants) from the parent plant and placing them in an agar growth medium containing growth hormones. When the sample develops plant lets, they are then planted into soil. Tissue cultures are similar, but instead of taking a large tissue sample from the parent plant, a small amount of cells are taken and formed into a callus (cluster) of cells and then transferred to a suspension to produce specific plant biochemicals.

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14
Q

Advantages of Micropropagation.

A
  • Reliable, high quality and yield
  • Free from infection/disease
  • Desired traits in plants
  • Produced in off season
  • Can produce extinct/low seed availability/difficult to grow plants
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15
Q

Disadvantages of Micropropagation.

A
  • Expensive
  • Needs experienced work force
  • If disease/ pathogens are contracted, whole crop will be destroyed as genetically identical
  • Reduced biodiversity monoculture
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16
Q

Steps of Micropropagation in sugarcane.

A

The meristem of sugarcane plant is exposed and placed in agar to creat shoots and roots, where the plants are soiled and hardened in green houses, and then planted in fields to grow.

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17
Q

Examples of natural cloning in animals.

A
  • Mitosis (growth and repair)
  • Monozygotic (identical) twins
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18
Q

Natural cloning in captive animals (sharks).

A

Parthenogenesis can occur (polar body fusing with egg cell) in any solitary animal, from the biological signal for reproduction signalling parthenogenesis to occur if it isn’t met.

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19
Q

Parthenogenesis in bananas.

A

A mutation where mitosis rather than meiosis occurs, to form a diploid cell which can fertilise the egg cell, and asexually reproduce. Bananas are parthenocarpic.

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20
Q

Natural cloning in hydra.

A

Small organisms found in marine ecosystems, which produce asexually produce buds as extensions of its body, which can then detach from the parent organism.

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21
Q

What is a totipotent stem cell?

A

Embryonic cells which can divine into all cell types (including placenta cells) in an organism, and even form entire organisms, up until the stem cell is 6-7 days old.

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22
Q

What is a pluripotent stem cell?

A

Stem cells which can differentiate into most types of cell (not placenta cells) but not form entire organisms.

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23
Q

What is Artificial Twinning

A

Splitting embryos:
Cells from an embryo can be separated and each has a potential to develop into an entire organism.

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24
Q

What is the process of artificial twinning

A
  • Embryo cluster is split
  • The split cells develop into an identical embryo
  • Each embryo is implanted into a different surrogate mother
  • Identical (to the original embryo donor) clones offspring are born
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25
Q

Conditions for Artificial Twinning

A

In an animal which produces a litter, each surrogate must have multiple embryos implanted

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26
Q

Artificial Twinning advantages

A

The twinning procedure allows some embryos to be frozen. Useful if a species in endangered or if embryos need to be transferred.

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27
Q

What is somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

A

Differentiated cells taken from adults. The nucleus is removed and placed into an enucleated ovum, and the embryo can be split to make clones (eg. Dolly the Sheep)

28
Q

SCNT Diagram

A

Dolly the sheep cloning (1996), 1st out of 277 attempts. Longevity of life of organism is affected

29
Q

What is reproductive cloning

A

Clones that develop to produce entire organisms (eg Dolly the sheep).

30
Q

What is non-reproductive cloning

A

Cloning which generates cells, tissues, and organs (not entire fertile organisms). Cells are taken from biopsy and grown in a lab (eg skin grafts)

31
Q

Advantages of non-reproductive cloning

A
  • Cells not rejected by host (genetically identical)
  • Don’t have to wait for organ donors
  • Totipotent cells
  • Using cloned cells is less dangerous than surgery (less invasive techniques)
32
Q

Possibilities of non reproductive (therapeutic cloning)

A
  • Regeneration of heart muscle post heart attack (better option than surgery/transplant)
  • Repair of nervous tissue damaged from disease (eg MS - neurological condition where myelin sheath breaks down, can be cured by injecting myelin producing cells)
  • Repairing spinal cord of those paralysed by an accident (trialing)
33
Q

Disadvantages of non-reproductive cloning

A
  • No guarantee of success
  • Expensive
  • When cells are kept in culture they mutate, so need screening to eliminate the risk of cancer
  • In vitro - viruses can be passed from cells to patient
  • Stem cells forming embryonic tissue are hard to harvest
  • Organ cloning is very difficult as there are many components involved
34
Q

Define Biotechnology

A

Technology based on biology and involves the exploitation of living organisms or biological processes to:
- Improve agriculture
- Animal husbandry
- Food science (Queen)
- Medicine
- Industry (cleaning equipment/water)

Using biological processes or organisms to produce useful products or provide useful services to humans.

35
Q

Why are microorganisms used in biotechnology

A
  • Grow rapidly
  • Often produce secreted proteins/products that can be harvested easily
  • Can be genetically engineered
  • Grow well at relatively low temperatures
  • Can grow anywhere (not dependant on climate)
  • Products are more pure (no toxins)
  • Can often be grown using nutrient materials that would be otherwise useless/toxic to humans (eg using waste products)
36
Q

What is indirect food production

A

Using microbes to help create the product, but the microbe is not being consumed.

37
Q

Yoghurt production overview

A
  • Indirect food production
  • Culturing milk with live bacteria (bacteria produce lactic acid which lowers the pH of the yoghurt, which coagulates and denatures the milk proteins.
  • Bacteria used is lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophilus which changes lactose to lactic acid
38
Q

Yoghurt production process

A
  • Sterilisation of equipment (kill bacteria)
  • Pasturisation of milk 85-95•C, 30 mins (kill bacteria that could compete with lactobacillus)
  • Homogenisation of milk breaks down fat droplets (prevents lumpy yoghurt)
  • Cooling of milk 40-45•C and lactobacillus bacteria added
  • Incubation of mixture 40-45•C as the bacterias digest milk proteins and ferment lactose (fermentation)
  • Bacteria converts lactose to lactic acid, increasing pH to 4.4 (coagulation) (low pH prevents bacteria (including bad) working, stops yoghurt solidifying
  • Stirring and cooling to 5•C of mixture to stop bacteria action
  • Flavourings, colourings and fruit added before packaging
39
Q

Yoghurt production process diagram

A
40
Q

Cheese production overview

A
  • Milk is a suspension of lactose, fat, proteins (casein) and minerals in water
  • Cheese is concentrated milk (useful to transport)
  • Bacteria feed on lactose inhibiting the bacteria, changing the texture, taste, and longevity of it
  • Amount of whey removed determines the hardness of cheese
  • Level of maturity of cheese determined by length left to mature (bacterial metabolism occurs for longer giving flavour)
41
Q

Cheese production process diagram

A
42
Q

Cheese production process

A
  • Pasteurisation of milk heated 95•C 20 secs to kill bacteria
  • Starter culture (lactobacillus and streptococcus lactis) ferments lactose to lactic acid dropping pH from 7 to 4.5, solidifying the milk
  • Rennet (containing enzyme chymosin) added to coagulate the protein casein. Rennet produced by GM bacteria
  • Coagulated milk is chopped up to separate curd and whey (whey dehydrated and used for animal food, curd protein and fat)
  • Curd gets salted and becomes soft cheese, or pressed to make hard cheese
43
Q

Quorn (mycoprotein) production overview

A
  • The fungus Fusarium venenatum is grown in fermenters then treated to produce blocks of mycoprotein
  • Quorn is the only company producing this for consumption
  • Mycoprotein has high protein and fibre contents
  • Produces far less CO2 than meat
44
Q

Quorn production process

A
  • Fermenter is sterilised then filled with water and glucose solution, then fusarium venenatum is added
  • The organism starts to grow a pond a continuous feed of nutrients are added to the solution. The pH, temperature, nutrient concentration and oxygen are adjusted for optimum growth
  • The organism is gently heated and harvested as mycoprotein (breaking down and removing the fungus’s RNA as its toxic )
  • The fungus is harvested after a month to avoid a mutation of vertically fruiting short hyphae from growing after cultivation (avoiding sexual reproduction as it changes the specific function of the fungus)
  • The mycoprotein is seasoned and mixed with binding agents, then steam cooked and chilled to shape it
  • The product is then frozen (crucial due to the ice crystals pushing the fibres together for meat like texture)
45
Q

Bread production overview

A
  • Relies on fermentation by yeast
  • Glucose > Carbon Dioxide + Ethanol
  • Ethanol evaporates from bread whilst cooking
  • Aerobic respiration required
46
Q

Bread production process

A
  • Once ingredients are mixed (with yeast), fermentation begins
  • Bread is kneaded to form a ‘gluten net’ which traps the CO2 produced by yeast (promotes aerobic respiration)
  • Rest the bread (proving) allowing the yeast cells to multiply (promotes anaerobic respiration) and produces CO2 and ethanol
  • Knocking back the bread removes the products of aerobic respiration
  • Cooking the bread kills the yeast cells to stop further CO2 and yeast production
47
Q

Bread production process diagram

A
48
Q

Brewing process overview

A
  • Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) used
  • Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)
  • Glucose > Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
  • Ethanol is the desired product and CO2 creates the bubbles
49
Q

Brewing process

A
  • Malting: Barley germinates, producing enzymes that break down to sugars that yeast uses. Slow heating kills seeds and enzyme activity produces malt
  • Mashing: Malt is mixed with hot water and enzymes break down starched producing wort. Hops added for flavour and antiseptic qualities.
  • Fermentation: Wort inoculated with yeast. Temperature maintained for optimum fermentation. pH falls, ethanol builds, oxygen lacks which inhibit yeast
  • Maturation: Beer conditioned for 4-29 days at 2-6•C
  • Finishing: Beer is filtered, pasteurised, carbonated and canned
50
Q

Brewing process diagram

A
51
Q

What is an industrial fermenter

A

A fermenter (bioreactor) with a 30,000 gallon capacity, which controls growth conditions, and is made of stainless steel (sterile) with valve operated pipelines which are sterilised by heated steam

52
Q

Define asepsis

A

The absence of unwanted microorganisms when using any culturing technique

53
Q

Define aseptic technique

A

Any measure taken, during bio technological process to ensure that unwanted microorganisms don’t contaminate the culture/products

54
Q

Examples of aseptic techniques

A
  • Washing hands
  • Sterilising equipment
  • Cleaning fermenters with steam
55
Q

Describe growing conditions in fermenters

A

Conditions are manipulated to be specific to the microorganism, and for if primary or secondary metabolites are required

56
Q

What is a primary metabolite

A

Eg in brewing ethanol is a primary metabolite as it is the primary production of the process

57
Q

What is a secondary metabolite

A

Eg Penicillin production, penicillium only forms penicillin (the required product) when it itself stops growing/starts decomposing

58
Q

What are factors when manipulating growing conditions

A
  • Temperature: too high enzymes denature, too low growth is slow
  • Nutrients: timing manipulated to favour primary/secondary metabolites, dependant on microbe present
  • Oxygen: aerobic requires O2, lack of O2 causes contamination
  • pH: affects efficiency of enzymes (can weaken bonds and denature)
59
Q

Industrial fermenter diagram

A
  • Motor: to keep impeller moving
  • Nutrient/innocuoant port
  • Impeller: mix substrate and O2 etc
  • Cooling jacket: controls temperature
  • Antifoam: chemical which prevents foaming
  • Sparger: provides bubbles to uplift debri
  • Harvest pipe: where pure product is released
60
Q

Define continuous culturing processes

A

The process where nutrients are added and products are removed from a fermenter at regular intervals or continuously

61
Q

Define batch culturing processes

A

A process in which a specific quantity of nutrient is added at the beginning and is then grown for a fixed period of time, and when the process has completed the products are removed and the tank is emptied ready to be used again

62
Q

Advantages of continuous fermentation

A
  • Produces a large quantity of product cheaply
  • Areas of the fermenter can be shut off and sterilised to continue aseptic technique
63
Q

Disadvantages of continuous fermentation

A
  • Antifoam used in large quantities due to the changing environment
  • Lengthy process which is labour intensive
  • Environment is monitored and manipulated often which is difficult to control
  • If something in the process goes wrong then product can be lost
  • Ports being open to input nutrients can cause contamination
64
Q

Advantages of batch fermentation

A
  • All nutrients set up with optimum conditions, no changes made
  • Good for secondary metabolites
  • Small fermenter means less labour
  • Less contamination as ports don’t have to be opened
65
Q

Disadvantages of batch fermentation

A
  • Difficult to harvest what you want

Biology (25 decks)

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