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5.6 Flashcards

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1
Q

Granum

A

Inner part of chloroplasts made of stacks of thylakoids membranes where light-dependant stage of photosynthesis occurs

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2
Q

Photosynthetic pigment

A

Pigment that absorbs specific wavelengths of light and traps energy associated with light, such pigments include chlorophyll a and b, carotene and xanthophyll

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3
Q

Photosystem

A

System of photosynthetic pigments found in thylakoids of chloroplasts, each photosystem contains about 300 molecules of chlorophyll that traps photons and pass their energy to a primary pigment reaction centre, a molecule of chlorophyll a, during light dependant stage of photosynthesis

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4
Q

Stroma

A

Fluid filled matrix of chloroplasts where light independent stage of photosynthesis takes place

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5
Q

Thylakoid

A

Flattened membrane bound sac found inside chloroplasts, contains photosynthetic pigments/photosystems and is the site of light dependent stage of photosynthesis

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6
Q

What is photosynthesis

A

A physiological process used by plants, algae and some bacteria to covert light energy from sunlight into chemical energy

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7
Q

What do organisms do with chemical energy converted form light energy

A

Use chemical energy to synthesise large organic molecules which form building blocks of living cells from simple inorganic molecules like water and CO2 (autotrophic nutrition)

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8
Q

What are organisms that photosynthesise called

A

Photoautotrophs as they use light as an energy source for autotrophic nutrition, they are described as producers as they’re at the beginning of the food chain and provide energy and organic molecules to other non-photosynthetic organisms

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9
Q

What is photosynthesis equation

A

6CO2 +6H2O + energy from photons -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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10
Q

What is a photon

A

A light particle, each photon contains an amount of energy

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11
Q

What is main product of photosynthesis

A

Monosaccharide sugar which can be converted to disaccharides for transport and then starch for storage

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12
Q

What is photosynthesis an example of

A

Carbon fixation

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13
Q

What is carbon fixation

A

Process by which CO2 is converted into sugars, carbon for synthesising all types of organic molecules is provided by carbon fixation

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14
Q

What reaction is carbon fixation

A

Endothermic so needs energy, carbon fixation also needs electrons, the addition of electrons is a reduction reaction

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15
Q

What does carbon fixation help

A

Helps regulate concentration of CO2 in atmosphere and oceans, most forms of life on earth rely directly or indirectly on photosynthesis

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16
Q

What do plants that photosynthesise also do

A

Respire, during respiration they oxidise organic molecules that they have previously synthesised by photosynthesis and stored releasing chemicals

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17
Q

What are heterotrophs

A

Non-photosynthetic organisms like fungi, animals, many protoctists and many bacteria, they get energy by digesting complex organic molecules of food to smaller molecules that are used as respiratory substrates, they obtain energy from digestion products by respiration

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18
Q

What happens during respiration

A

Glucose and other organic compounds are oxidised to produce CO2 and h20, respiration releases chemical energy (exothermic) that can drive organisms metabolism

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19
Q

What is respiration equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy

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20
Q

What are both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration important in

A

Cycling of CO2 and o2 in atmosphere, products of one process are raw materials for the other process (aerobic respiration removes oxygen from atmosphere and adds CO2 while photosynthesis does opposite

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21
Q

What is the circle of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis

A

Photosynthesis in photoautotrophs-> carbohydrate + oxygen -> respiration in all living organisms -> carbon dioxide + water -> photosynthesis in photoautotrophs

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22
Q

Plants respire all the time but when does photosynthesis occur

A

Only during daylight

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23
Q

Why do plants often compete with each other

A

For light, intensity of light has to be sufficient to allow photosynthesis at a rate that replenishes carbohydrate stores used up in respiration

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24
Q

When photosynthesis and respiration occur at the same rate what is the net gain of plants and what’s this called

A

No net gain or loss of carbohydrates, the plant is at its compensation point

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25
Q

What is the compensation period

A

Time takes to reach compensation point

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26
Q

Is compensation period the same of all plants

A

No it varies depending on the plant species, eg. When exposed to sunlight after darkness shade plants reach compensation point sooner than sun plants which need higher light intensity to reach optimum rate of photosynthesis

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27
Q

What are chloroplasts

A

Organelles in plants where photosynthesis occurs (algae have chloroplasts but photosynthetic bacteria don’t

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28
Q

What is the structure of most chloroplasts

A

Disc shaped and around 2-10um long, surrounded by a double membrane, the envelope with intermembrane space of 10-20nm between inner and outer membrane

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29
Q

How permeable is chloroplasts outer membrane

A

Highly permeable

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30
Q

What are the 2 distinct regions of chloroplasts on electronmicrographs

A

Inside chloroplasts are fluid filled matrix (stroma) and stacks of thylakoid membranes (grana)

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31
Q

What is the chain between each stroma called

A

Intergranal lamellae

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32
Q

What is the difference between grana and thylakoid

A

Thylakoid are individual discs and grana is the whole stack

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33
Q

Where does first stage of photosynthesis, light dependant stage occur

A

Grana

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34
Q

What 3 membranes do chloroplasts have

A

Outer, inner and thylakoid

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35
Q

What does chloroplasts having 3 membranes mean

A

It gives 3 separate internal compartments (intermembrane space, stroma and thylakoid space)

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36
Q

What may thylakoids with a granum be connected to another thylakoids with a granum with

A

Intergranal lamellae

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37
Q

What is the structure of thylakoid membrane of each chloroplast

A

It’s less permeable and is folded into flattened disc-like sacs called thylakoids that form stacks (each stack of thylakoid called a granum), one granum can contain up to 100 thylakoids

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38
Q

What does chloroplasts having many grana mean

A

Many grana in every chloroplasts and many chloroplasts on each photosynthetic cell there is high SA for distribution of photosystems that contain photosynthetic pigments that trap sunlight energy, electron carriers and ATP synthase enzymes needed to covert that light energy to ATP

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39
Q

What is the role of proteins embedded in thylakoid membranes

A

Hold photosystems in place

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40
Q

What are grana surrounded by and why

A

Stroma, so products of light dependant stage can easily pass to stroma to be used in light independent stage

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41
Q

What is the stroma

A

Fluid filled matrix, it contains enzymes needed to catalyse reactions of light independent stage of photosynthesis, as well as starch grains, oil droplets, small ribosomes like those in prokaryote cells and DNA

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42
Q

What is the loop of DNA in stroma needed for

A

Contains genes that code for some proteins needed for photosynthesis, these proteins assembled at chloroplasts ribosomes

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43
Q

What are within thylakoid membranes of each chloroplast

A

Funnel shaped structures called photosystems which contain photosynthetic pigment

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44
Q

What does each pigment in photosystems do

A

Absorbs light of a certain wavelength and reflects other wavelengths of light, each pigment appears to our eyes and brain the colour of the wavelength of light it’s reflecting

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45
Q

What happens to energy associated with wavelengths of light in photosystems

A

It’s captured and funnelled down to primary pigment reaction centre, consisting of a type of chlorophyll, at the base of the photosystem

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46
Q

What are chlorophylls

A

A mixture of pigments, they all have a similar molecular structure consisting of a porphyrin group, in which is a magnesium atom and a long hydrocarbon chain

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47
Q

How many forms of chlorophyll a are there

A

2 and both appear blue-green and both situated at centre of photosystem

48
Q

What colour light does chlorophyll a absorb and what’s the difference between the 2 forms of chlorophyll a

A

Both absorb red light but they have different absorption peaks

49
Q

Where is P680 found and what is it’s peak of absorption

A

It’s a type of chlorophyll a found in photosystem II and it’s peak of absorption is light of wavelength 680nm

50
Q

Where is P700 found and what is it’s peak of absorption

A

Type of chlorophyll a and found in photosystem I and it’s peak of absorption is light of wavelength 700nm

51
Q

What other colour light does chlorophyll a absorb and what’s its wavelength

A

Also absorbs some blue light of wavelength 440nm

52
Q

What light does chlorophyll b absorb

A

Light of wavelength 400-500nm and wavelength 640nm too, it appears yellow green

53
Q

What are 2 types of accessory pigments

A

Carotenoids and xanthophylls

54
Q

What do carotenoids absorb and reflect and at what wavelength

A

Absorb blue light of wavelength 400-500nm, they reflect orange and yellow light

55
Q

What do xanthophylls absorb and reflect and at what wavelength

A

Absorb blue and green light of wavelength 375-550nm, they reflect yellow light

56
Q

Where does Light dependant stage occur and what does it involve

A

Occurs in grana and involves photosystems, involves direct use of light energy

57
Q

What does the light dependant stage consist of

A

1.light harvesting at photosystems 2.photolysis of water 3.phosphorylation (production of ATP in light presence) 4. Formation of reduced NADP, oxygen, the byproduct of photosynthesis also produced in light dependant stage

58
Q

What is pigment at photosystem I (PS1)

A

Pigment at primary reaction is a type of chlorophyll a which has a peak absorption of red light of wavelength 700nm (P700)

59
Q

What is pigment in photosystem II (PSII)

A

Pigment at primary reaction centre is also type of chlorophyll a, but peak absorption of red light is wavelength 680nm (P680)

60
Q

What happens in PSII

A

There’s an enzyme that in presence of light, splits water molecules to protons (H+), electrons and oxygen, splitting of water like this called photolysis (2H2O -> 4H+ + 4e- + O2

61
Q

What is some oxygen produced in photolysis used for

A

By pant cell for aerobic respiration but during high light intensity rate of photosynthesis is greater than respiration rate in plant so lots of oxygen bi-product will diffuse out of leaves through stomata into atmosphere

62
Q

What is water the source of in photo phosphorylation

A

Water is the source of protons used in photo phosphorylation, it donates electrons to chlorophyll to replace those lost when light strikes chlorophyll, it’s a source of the bi-product oxygen and it keeps plant cells turgid so they can function

63
Q

What is photophosphorylation

A

The generation of ATP form ADP and inorganic phosphate in the presence of light

64
Q

What are the 2 types of photophosphorylation

A

Non-cyclic photo phosphorylation and cyclic

65
Q

What is non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A

Involves PSI and PSII, it produces ATP, oxygen and reduced NADP

66
Q

What is cyclic photophosphorylation

A

Involves only PSI, it produces ATP but in smaller quantities than non-cyclic

67
Q

What do both photophosphorylations involve

A

Iron containing proteins embedded in thylakoid membranes that accept and donate electrons and form electron transport systems

68
Q

What is the first 3 steps of non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A

1.when photon of light strikes PSII (P680) its energy is channeled to primary pigment reaction centre 2.light energy exited a pair of electrons inside chlorophyll molecule 3.energised electrons escape from chlorophyll molecule and captured by an electron carrier which is a protein with iron at its centre, embedded in thylakoid membrane

69
Q

What is steps 4,5,6 of non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A
  1. These electrons replaced by electrons derived from photolysis 5.when this iron ion combines with an electron it becomes reduced (Fe2+), it can donate the electron becoming reoxidised (Fe3+), to next electron Carrier in the chain 6. As electron passed along a chain of electron carriers embedded in thylakoid membrane, at each step some energy associated with the electron is released
70
Q

What is steps 7,8,9 of non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A

7.this energy used used to pump protons across thylakoid membrane into thylakoid space 8.eventually electrons captured by another molecule of chlorophyll a in PSI, these electrons replace those lost form PSI due to excitation by light energy 9. A protein-iron-sulfur complex called ferredoxin accepts electrons from PSI and passes them to NADP in stroma

71
Q

What is steps 10,11,12 of non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A

10.as protons accumulate in thylakoid space a proton gradient forms across the membrane 11.protons diffuse down their concentration gradient through special channels in membrane associated with ATP synthase enzymes and as they do so flow of protons causes ADP and inorganic phosphate to join forming ATP 12. As protons pass through channel they are accepted with electrons by NADP which becomes reduced, reduction of NADP catalysed by enzyme NADP reductase

72
Q

What has happened by the end of non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A

Light energy has been converted to chemical energy in form of ATP by photophosphorylation, ATP and reduced NADP now in stroma ready for light independent stage of photosynthesis

73
Q

What does cyclic photophosphorylation use

A

Uses only PSI (P700)

74
Q

What happens in cyclic photophosphorylation as light strikes PSI

A

A pair of electrons in chlorophyll molecule at reaction centre gains energy and becomes excited, they escape from chlorophyll and pass to an electron carrier system and then pass back to PSI

75
Q

What happens during passage of electrons along electron carriers in cyclic photophosphorylation

A

During passage of electrons along electron carriers a small amount of ATP generated but no photolysis of water so no protons or oxygen are produced so no reduced NADP generated

76
Q

What is different about chloroplasts in guard cells and what does this mean

A

They only contain PSI they produce only ATP which actively brings potassium ions into cell, lowering water potential so water flows by osmosis which causes guard cells to swell and opens the stoma

77
Q

Where does light independent stage of photosynthesis occur

A

In stroma of chloroplasts

78
Q

What is the light independent stage

A

It doesn’t directly use light energy but uses products of light dependant stage, if plant not illuminated light independent stage ceases as ATP and hydrogen not available to reduce CO2 and synthesise large complex organic molecules

79
Q

What is the role of CO2 in light independent stage

A

It’s the source of carbon for production of all organic molecules found in carbon-based life forms on earth, these organic molecules may be used as structures (eg. Cell membranes, antigens, enzymes, muscle proteins, cellulose cell wall) or act as energy stores (starch and glycogen)

80
Q

Where does CO2 in air enter plant and what happens next

A

CO2 in air enters leaves through stomata and diffuses through spongy mesophyll layer to palisade layer and through palisade layers thin cellulose cell wall to chloroplasts envelope and into stroma

81
Q

What does the fixation of carbon dioxide in the stroma maintain

A

Maintains concentration gradient that aids diffusion, CO2 that is a bi-product of respiration in plant cells may also be used for this stage of photosynthesis

82
Q

What is the Calvin cycle

A

A series of reactions whereby CO2 is converted to organic molecules

83
Q

What is step 1 of Calvin cycle

A

CO2 combines with a CO2 acceptor, a 5C compound ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), catalysed by enzyme RuBisCO

84
Q

What is step 2 of Calvin cycle

A

RuBP by accepting carboxyl (coo-) group becomes carboxylated forming an unstable 6C compound that breaks down immediately

85
Q

What is step 3 of Calvin cycle

A

Product of breakdown is 2 molecules of 3C compound, GP (glycerate-3-phosphate) and CO2 has now been fixed

86
Q

What is step 4 of Calvin cycle

A

GP then reduced using hydrogens from reduced NADP made in light dependant stage to triose phosphate (TP). Energy from ATP also made in light dependant stage is used at this stage at a rate of 2 ATP molecules for every CO2 molecule fixed during stage 3

87
Q

What is step 5 of Calvin cycle

A

In 10 of every 12 TP molecules, atoms are rearranged to regenerate 5 molecules of RuBP, this process requires phosphate groups, chloroplasts contain low levels of RuBP as continuously converted to GP but also constantly regenerated, remaining 2 molecules of the 12 are the product (lipids, hexose sugar etc)

88
Q

How many turns of Calvin cycle needed to make 1 molecule of glucose

A

6 turns needed to form 2 TP molecules to make 1 glucose molecule

89
Q

Why does Calvin cycle only occur in the daylight

A

Products of light dependant stage, ATP and reduced NADP are continuously needed to run Calvin cycle, during light dependant stage hydrogen ions pumped from stroma to thylakoid spaces so concentration of free protons in stroma falls, raising pH to around 8 which is optimum for enzyme RuBisCo, RuBisCO also activated by extra ATP in stroma

90
Q

In daylight what happens to concentration of magnesium and what does this cause

A

Magnesium ion concentration increases in the stroma, these ions attach to active site of RuBisCO acting as a cofactor to activate it, ferredoxin that’s reduced by electrons from PSI activated enzymes involved in reactions of Calvin cycle

91
Q

What are the different ways Triose phosphate (TP) is used for

A

Some TP molecules used to synthesise organic compounds like some glucose is converted to sucrose, some to starch and some to cellulose, some TP used to synthesise amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, rest of TP recycled to regenerate supply of RuBP, 5 molecules of the 3C compound TP interact to form 3 molecules of 5C compound RuBP

92
Q

What factors effect rate of complex processes of photosynthesis

A

Raw materials like CO2 and water and the energy source (light intensity) and chlorophyll availability, electron carriers and relevant enzymes, as well as temp and cell turgidity

93
Q

Do factors that affect rate of complex processes of photosynthesis operate at different times

A

No they operate simultaneously

94
Q

What is a limiting factor

A

At any given moment, rate of metabolic process that depends on a number of factors is limited by a factor that is present at its least favourable (lowest) level

95
Q

What does light provide in photosynthesis

A

Energy to power stage 1 of photosynthesis and produce ATP and reduced NADP needed for the next stage, light also causes stomata to open so gaseous exchange occurs

96
Q

What happens when stomata are open

A

Transpiration occurs and this leads to water uptake and delivery to leaves

97
Q

At a constant temp and suitable CO2 concentration what is the limiting factor of photosynthesis

A

Light intensity

98
Q

What happens when light intensity is low

A

Rate of photosynthesis low and as light intensity increases so does photosynthesis as it is still the limiting factor

99
Q

When light intensity increases why may photosynthesis not increase

A

Other factors have become the limiting factor

100
Q

What happens in the Calvin cycle is there is little/no light

A

1.GP can’t be reduced to TP 2.TP levels fall and GP accumulates 3. If TP levels fall, RuBP not regenerated

101
Q

Why is CO2 not usually a limiting factor to photosynthesis

A

Levels of CO2 in atmosphere and aquatic habitats usually high enough that CO2 not usually a limiting factor

102
Q

What is the effect of changing CO2 on the Calvin cycle

A

If CO2 concentration falls below 0.01% 1.RuBP can’t accept it and accumulates 2.GP can’t be made 3.TP can’t be made

103
Q

Why is the Calvin cycle temperature sensitive

A

As it involves many enzyme catalysed reactions

104
Q

What are the effects of low temp change to 20-30degreesC on the Calvin cycle

A

I plants have enough water and CO2 and sufficient light intensity, rate of photosynthesis increases as temp increases

105
Q

What are the effects of temp change to over 30degreesC on the Calvin cycle

A

For most plants, growth rates may reduce due to photorespiration, oxygen competes with CO2 for enzyme RuBisCOs active site which reduces amount of CO2 accepted by RuBP and reduces quantity of GP and then TP being made and initially causing build up of RuBP but then due to lack of TP, RuBP not regenerated

106
Q

What are the effects of temp change to over 45degreesC on the Calvin cycle

A

Enzymes involved in photosynthesis may denature and this would reduce concentration of GP and TP and eventually RuBP as it can’t be regenerated by TP

107
Q

What happens if plant has access to sufficient water in the soil

A

Then transpiration stream has cooling effect on the plant , water passing up xylem to leaves jeeps plant cells turgid so they can function, turgid guard cells keep stomata open for gaseous exchange

108
Q

What happens if not enough water is available to the plant (water stress)

A

1.roots unable to take up enough water to replace that lost via transpiration 2.cells lose water and become plasmolysed 3.plant roots produce abscisic acid that when translocated to leaves causes stomata to close reducing gaseous exchange 4.tissues become flaccid and leaves wilt 5.rate of photosynthesis greatly reduces

109
Q

What are different ways to measure rate of photosynthesis

A

Rate of uptake of raw materials like CO2, or rate of production of bi-product, oxygen. But for both cases we need to calculate quantity taken up or produced per unit time

110
Q

In school labs how is rate of photosynthesis often found but what are the limitations to this method

A

By measuring volume of oxygen produced per minute by an aquatic plant. Limitation are some of oxygen produced by plant used in respiration and may be some dissolved nitrogen in gas collected

111
Q

What is another name for a photosynthometer

A

Audus microburette

112
Q

How is a photosynthometer set up

A

Set up so it’s air tight and there are no air bubbles in the capillary tubing, gas given off by the plant over a known period of time collects in the flared end of the capillary tube. As the experimenter manipulates syringe, gas bubbles can be moved into the part of capillary tube against the scale and it’s length measured. If radius of capillary tube known then length can be converted to volume

113
Q

What is the equation for turning length into volume of gas collected

A

Volume= length of bubble x pi r2

114
Q

How would you investigate light intensity on rate of photosynthesis

A

Set up the photosynthometer. 1.put a section of Elodea in sodium hydrocarbonate solution and put light on this 2. Leave it 7mins then measure the bubble and work out the volume as well as the distance the light was to find the light intensity. Then repeat with the light further away

115
Q

How can you manipulate a photosynthometer to measure other factors instead of light intensity like wavelength of light, temp and CO2 concentration

A

Before investigating, make a prediction, state iv and dv, state variables you must control, why they need to be controlled and how, write a plan and ask someone to check it

116
Q

What is alternate method to investigate factors affecting rate of photosynthesis

A

1.add leaf discs from spinach in a syringe with sodium hydrocarbonate solution 3.put finger over hole and pull plunger to pull air out of spongy mesophyll and replace it with sodium hydrocarbonate, once discs sunk to bottom put light on it and measure time taken for leaves to rise (5-10mins), then repeat but move the light further away and see the effects of light intensity on photosynthesis

Alevel Biology (25 decks)

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