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4.2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards
1
Q

What is biodiversity

A

A measure of all different plants, animal, fungi and other microorganisms species worldwide, the gene they contain and ecosystems there a part of

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2
Q

What is biodiversity about

A

Structural and functional variety in living world

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3
Q

What is a habitat

A

A place where individuals in a species live

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4
Q

What is habitat biodiversity

A

Range of different habitats which different species like in

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5
Q

What habitats may we find in the UK

A

Sand dunes, woodlands, meadows and streams -> all occupied by a different range of species

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6
Q

What is a species

A

Consists of individual organisms that are similar in appearance, anatomy, physiology and genetics resulting in individuals in species being able to freely interbreed to produce fertile offspring

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7
Q

What contributes to species biodiversity

A

Range of organisms in a habitat

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8
Q

Give an example of why counting number of different species doesn’t always be accurate

A

2habitats may have equal number of species but not equally diverse. There may be 25 species in a meadow and 25 species in a garden, but in the garden over half those species are just grass. So the meadow is more diverse

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9
Q

What is species richness and evenness

A

Number of species-richness Degree to which they’re represented-evenness

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10
Q

What is genetic biodiversity

A

Variation between individuals of same species ensuring we’re not all identical

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11
Q

What can genetic variation create in species

A

Breeds- like different dog breeds

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12
Q

What do you need to do to measure biodiversity of an area and what is the problem with this

A

Need to observe all species present, identify them and count how many individuals of each species there are for all plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms in that habitat (but this is impractical as can’t count all single celled organisms)

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13
Q

How can some microorganisms be cultured

A

On nutrient medium in lab to gain estimate of numbers, but it won’t grow like this, instead you can sample a habitat

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14
Q

What does sampling a habitat mean

A

You select a small proportion and study that area, then you multiply up number of each species found to estimate number in whole habitat

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15
Q

What are the 2 broad categories of sampling techniques

A

Random and non-random

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16
Q

How are random samples carried out

A

Sample sites inside habitat randomly selected by deciding where to place samples before studying an area in detail and can be done by using random number generator to generate numbers as coordinates for your sample or selecting coordinates from a map

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17
Q

What are advantages of random sampling

A

Ensures data isn’t bias by selective sampling

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18
Q

Disadvantages of random sampling

A

May not cover areas of habitat equally, species with low presence may be missed lead to underestimate of biodiversity

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19
Q

What 3 types of non-random sampling are there

A

Opportunistic, stratified, systematic

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20
Q

What is opportunistic sampling

A

When researcher makes sampling decisions based on prior knowledge or during process of collecting data, researcher may deliberately sample an area they know has a specific species

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21
Q

Advantages of opportunistic sampling

A

Easier and quicker than random sampling

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22
Q

Disadvantage of opportunistic sampling

A

Data may be bias as presence of large or colourful species may cause researcher to sample it and leads to overestimate of biodiversity

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23
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

Diving habitat into areas which appear different and sampling each area separately, eg. Patches of braken in heathlands sampled separately from heather in heathland

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24
Q

What is advantages of stratified sampling

A

Ensures all different areas of habitat are sampled and species not under represented due to random sampling missing areas

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25
Q

What is disadvantage of stratified sampling

A

May over represent some areas in sample, as disproportionate number of samples taken in small areas that look different

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26
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

When samples taken at fixed intervals across habitat, line transect and belt transects are systematic techniques

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27
Q

What is advantages of systematic sampling

A

Useful when habitat shows clear gradient in some environmental factors liek getting dryer away from pond

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28
Q

What is disadvantage of systematic sampling

A

Only species on line or on belt recorded and other species may be missed causing underestimate of biodiversity

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29
Q

It’s important to be properly prepared for fieldwork, what should planning include

A

Suitable clothes depending on habitat and weather conditions, suitable footwear, apparatus needed (clipboard and paper), appropriate keys to identify plants, camera to record specimens and grid location

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30
Q

What should you know before beginning fieldwork for sampling

A

Number of samples you will collect and pre prepared results table

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31
Q

What range of techniques may you use when visiting a site to measure biodiversity

A

Random sampling maybe useful but might need to modify if habitat isn’t homogenous (even), moving sampling sites would become opportunistic sampling as making decisions during sampling process and stratified as treating parts of habitat differently

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32
Q

What is important to consider when at a sampling site of a habitat

A

Effect your presence had on habitat, any sampling should cause little disturbance

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33
Q

How should you sample plants

A

Large plants like trees can be counted individually but small and numerous plants is best to calculate percentage ground cover of each species

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34
Q

What is a quadrat

A

A square frame used to define size of each sample area

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35
Q

What size is quadrat

A

Can be any size but usually 50x50cm or 1mx1m

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36
Q

What must you identify within quadrat

A

Must identify plants found and then calculate percentage cover S measure of their abundance

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37
Q

It’s hard to accurately measure percentage cover but what do some quadrants have to help them

A

Have strings in a grid that divide quadrat to smaller squares making estimates more accurate

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38
Q

What is a point frame

A

Device to help measure percentage cover in quadrat, lower frame into quadrat and record any plant touching needles

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39
Q

What is issues with point frames

A

1 needle may touch several plants so possible to have 300-400% cover in some habitats, also its easy to bias your readings as may place it non randomly in point frame,l

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40
Q

What is a transect

A

A line taken across the habitat

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41
Q

How do you work a transect

A

Stretch a long string or tape measure across habitat and take samples along this line, in large habitats line transect used where only record samples touching this line at set intervals

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42
Q

What is an interrupted belt transect and what data is produced

A

Placing quadrat on line transect at set intervals and will provide quantitate data at intervals within habitat

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43
Q

What is continuous belt transect

A

Place quadrat beside transect line and move it along line so you can study band in detail

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44
Q

What data does studying quadrants provide

A

Quantitive

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45
Q

Why are animals hard to sample

A

Hard to spot and difficult to count, larger animals detect are presence and hide and small ones are too quick to count so quantative data hard to collect

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46
Q

How can you note presence of larger animals

A

Careful observation of footprints, droppings, burrows and deer damage bark in specific ways

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47
Q

How do ecologists estimate population size

A

Rely on signs left behind by animals like droppings and footprints and recent advances allow DNA sequencing to distinguish droppings to provide more accurate population size estimate

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48
Q

What techniques used to catch invertebrates

A

Sweep bet, pooter, tree beating, pitfall trap, tullgren funnel, light trap

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49
Q

What is sweep net

A

Technique for sweep netting involves walking through habitat with net and sweeping it through vegetation and small animals caught in this net, then empty content onto white sheet and identify them before they fly away

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50
Q

What is a pooter

A

Use pooter to collect animals before they fly away

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51
Q

What is kick sampling

A

Like sweep netting but done in water, always disturb ground upstream from net

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52
Q

What is tree beating

A

Put white sheeting under branch and knock brand with wooden stick, vibrations dislodge animal which drop into sheet and must quickly identify them before they crawl or fly away

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53
Q

What is a pitfall trap

A

Trap set in soil to catch small animals consisting of small o stained buried in soul so rim is just below surface, any animals moving through plants will fall into container, trap should have little water or scrunched paper to stop animals escaping and in rain trap should be shelters so doesn’t fill with water

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54
Q

What is a tullgren funnel

A

Collects smaller animals form leaf litter, place litter in funnel and light above drives animals downwards as litter drys out and warms up, they fall through mesh screen to be collected in jar underneath funnel

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55
Q

What is a light trap

A

Used to collect flying insects at night, it has UV that attracts insects and under light is vessel to collect animals, moths and other insects attracted to light eventually fall into trap

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56
Q

What does techniques to collect animals depend on

A

On habitat and what animal your catching

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57
Q

Can anyone catch animals

A

Need a licence as care must be taken with animal

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58
Q

What trap often used to catch smaller animals

A

Longworth trap- it enables population size to be estimated using mark and recapture but they must be regularly monitored to release trapped animals

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59
Q

How does longworth trap work

A

First need to capture sample of animals, mark each individual in same way without causing harm, number captured will be c1, release trapped animals and leave trap for another time period, second capture is c2 and number already captured on second occasion is C3, then to calculate total population- (c1xc2)/C3

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60
Q

How can longworth trap be effected

A

By animals that learn trap is harmless and contains food or by animals that doesn’t like trap so stays away from it after 1st capture

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61
Q

How can birds be sampled

A

Ringing techniques

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62
Q

How can larger animals be sampled

A

Tagged

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63
Q

What do we consider when measuring biodiversity

A

Species richness and evenness

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64
Q

What is species richness

A

Number of species present, more present grater the richness

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65
Q

What is species evenness

A

Measure of relative numbers of abundance of individuals in each species

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66
Q

Where do you find the most diverse areas

A

Places with even species evenness

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67
Q

How can species richness be measured

A

Counting species present in a habitat by doing a quantitative survey to calculate biodiversity

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68
Q

How would you survey frequency of plants

A

First sample plants and record percentage cover for each species or with large plants count number of them per unit area, technique can be used in aquatic and terrestrial sampling

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69
Q

What does measuring density of animals in habitat mean

A

Calculating how many animals of each species there are per unit area of habitat

70
Q

How do you measure density of animals in habitat

A

Larger animals counted by observation and smaller ones using sampling techniques, population size estimate done using mark and recapture but doesn’t work for numerous small animals in soil- to do that must take sample of soil and find all individuals and count them

71
Q

What is Simpson’s index of biodiversity

A

Measure if habitat diversity by taking into account species richness and evenness

72
Q

What does n, N stand for in Simpson’s index

A

n=number of individuals in species N=total number of all individuals Ik all species

73
Q

What does high Simpson’s index (over 0.5) indicate

A

Diverse habitat so habitat is more stable and can withstand changes in environment better than less diverse habitat

74
Q

What does low Simpson’s index indicate

A

Habitats dominated by only a few species and small changes in environment could destroy habitat

75
Q

What is the issue with isolated populations, captive animals, pedigrees and rare breeds

A

Have limited genetic biodiversity but assessing it regularly may help with conservation

76
Q

How do you measure genetic biodiversity

A

Looking at observable features, genetic diversity found when there’s more than 1 allele for particular loci and this leads to variations within individuals and means more genetic differences between gametes produced by members of population

77
Q

How can genetic diversity be estimated but what is a problem with this

A

By calculating number of loci in heterozygous individuals (2different alleles), but doesn’t give good measure of value of population as genetic resource

78
Q

What’s another way to measure genetic diversity

A

Calculating percentage of loci in that population that have more than one allele

79
Q

What’s a polymorphic gene loci

A

Some loci have make than 2 alleles which increases genetic biodiversity

80
Q

Why is number of species and genetic diversity declining

A

Due to human activity

81
Q

Why has biodiversity began to decrease

A

1000 years ago humans lived as hunters and had little effect on natural processes but as population grows we demand more food and consumer goods and we have greater and greater effect on species, we learnt to use environment to our advantage and can alter ecosystems to get ourselves food and as result we harm species both directly and indirectly

82
Q

How does agriculture have big effect on biodiversity

A

We clear natural vagi ration and reduce size of habitats and population size species of any wild species living in those habitats which reduces genetic diversity of species as their population reduced and means species had less capacity to adapt to changing conditions through evolution and may lead to fragmented populations to small to survive

83
Q

What does modern agriculture rely on

A

Monoculture and selective breeding to increase efficiency

84
Q

What is monoculture

A

A species consisting of 1 strain and has limited genetic diversity making product easy to harvest

85
Q

Give an example of monoculture

A

Rainforests with huge biodiversity replaced by palm oil plants

86
Q

How can selective breeding reduce genetic diversity

A

Farmers select specific traits like rapid growth or high protein content and concentrating on these mean other characteristics ignored so diversity declines

87
Q

What is genetic erosion

A

Selecting for specific breeds of domestic plants and animals means other breeds become rare and may die out and loss of these reduces genetic diversity of a species

88
Q

How does human activity altering climate affect animals

A

Species with limited genetic diversity are less able to adapt to changes in temp and rainfall in areas they live in, only alternative for them is to move with the climate patterns where there most suited which means slow migration of populations and whole ecosystems towards poles

89
Q

What may obstruct migration of animals

A

Major human developments, agricultural land, bodies of water and mountain ranges

90
Q

Who are most at risk from climate change

A

Domesticated pants and animals as we selectively breed them to survive in specific conditions so little variation and so they are unlikely to survive changing conditions and more vulnerable to disease

91
Q

What will happen to agriculture as climate change gets worse

A

Efficiency will decrease and less food available so farmers need to change crops they grow and keep a variety of animals

92
Q

What is extinction

A

Occurs when last living member of species dies and species cease to exist

93
Q

What happened to extinction rates since humans

A

Increase d

94
Q

What are figures on extinction currently

A

Over 800 recorded extinctions since 1500 and 20% of species alive today could be extinct by 2030 and half species alive today will be extinct by 2100, extinction rates is as fast as all other extinction events

95
Q

Have there been mass extinction in the past

A

Yes, but this one caused by human activity not natural climate change or disaster

96
Q

What are natural ecosystem complexes

A

They have developed over millions of years as species evolved to live with and depend on each other

97
Q

How are all organisms in a habitat linked together

A

In food chain/web

98
Q

What does the range of relations between organisms in same habitat include

A

Predator prey, inter and intra-species completion, parasitic and mutualistic relationships

99
Q

What happens to a habitat when 1 species effected by human activity

A

It effects the whole habitat (some more than others)

100
Q

Give an example of human activity effecting a habitat

A

Bird feeds on variety of insects and 1 insect falls in numbers bird can feed off other insects but in species with lower diversity loss of one prey may cause bird to have less food and numbers decline. Why habitats with more species diversity are more stable and withstand change

101
Q

What is a keystone species

A

Species that have disproportionate effect on their environment relative to their abundance

102
Q

What does decline of a keystone species mean

A

Catastrophic effect on habitat

103
Q

Give an example of a keystone species

A

Mountain lions in Arizona hunted to protect deer population resulting in deer population largely increase and eating all vegetation and then decrease again as they starved

104
Q

Can plants have keystone species too

A

Yes

105
Q

Give an example of plant keystone species

A

Sugar maple in north USA has deep roots and access to deep water and transfer it to shallow dry areas of the soil so water is available to other plants

106
Q

How are beavers a keystone species

A

Low population but they build dams which have big effect on habitats, large areas can be flooded and this creates still water in which many other species can live

107
Q

What does letting biodiversity decline mean

A

Genetic diversity declines so we could loose natural solution to some of our problems

108
Q

What problems do wild animals and plants hold the answer to

A

Climate change, as these organisms have adapted over time to the ever changing climate and overcome diseases in area

109
Q

How may be able to make new plants species and why would we do this

A

Careful selection and breeding from wild strains and species could create new crop varieties which can withstand conditions due to climate change

110
Q

Why are plants, fungi, bacteria and animals so important for humans

A

Many medicinal and vaccine uses

111
Q

Why are plants useful for medicines

A

They have adapted to defend off many diseases and fungus in soil which could be useful for humans too

112
Q

What did economists and environmentalists do in 1997 and what did they find

A

Estimated economic value of natural ecosystem and found worth $33x10*12

113
Q

In 1992 it was looked at what ways ecosystems valuable to humans, what did they find

A

Regulation of atmosphere and climate, purification of water, formation and fertilisation of soil, recycling nutrients, detoxification and waste recycle, crop pollination, timber growth, medicinal molecules

114
Q

Why does loss of biodiversity effect food production

A

It causes soil depletion, soil subjected to monoculture becomes less and less fertile so crop yields decline as they take minerals out of soil and when crops removed these minerals removed from ecosystem

115
Q

Give an example of when soil depletion observed

A

Dust bowl in America, cropping without changing soil and drought led to soil becoming dust

116
Q

What are asthmatic reasons to keep biodiversity

A

Experience joy when observing variation of nature, helps with stress, natural environment important for our physics, intellectual and emotional health

117
Q

How are landscapes formed

A

By action of climate factors on land and living biosphere has effects on landscape, like forests protect soil from climate factors like rainfall which washes away soil

118
Q

What does reducing biodiversity mean in rainforests

A

Exposed soil washes away and landscape changes, deforestation causes large floods

119
Q

Is conservation a passive process

A

No

120
Q

What is conservation and its aims

A

Involves active management to maintain habitats and species that live their with aim of enabling endangered species to survive and maintain biodiversity

121
Q

What is conservation in situ

A

Conserving species in their natural habitat, involves attempting to minimise human effect on natural environment and protect natural environment

122
Q

What is one way of in situ conservation

A

Legislations

123
Q

How is legislations a way of in situ conservation

A

Possible to paddle legislations to stop hunting, logging and clearing land for development, they are country specific and food cult to enforce but international law does govern what people can and can’t import

124
Q

What are wildlife reserves

A

Designated areas for conservation of habitats and species, very important in conservation effort esp in Africa

125
Q

What do the principles for choosing a wildlife reserve include

A

Comprehensive (how many species represented in area and environment conditions), adequacy (is area large enough for long term survival of species), representativeness (is there range of diversity within species or environment condition)

126
Q

Why can we not exclude all human activity in in situ conservation

A

Indigenous people may use land for traditional hunting or spiritual reasons

127
Q

In the past reserves set up without consent of locals causing conflict, what did the conflict arise due to

A

Project coming out of reserve to raid crops, poaching, illegal timber, tourists feeding animals

128
Q

What are national parks in the UK

A

There are 15, cover the most beautiful landscapes and areas of protected countryside that all can visit and where people live, work and shape a landscape

129
Q

What are national nature reserves in uk

A

Almost 400 in uk, cover almost all types of vegetation and occupying 94000hectors of land, set up to protect sensitive areas of land and enable research and education

130
Q

What are sites of special scientific interest in uk

A

Over 6000 SSSI in UK, these are countries best wildlife and geological sites including some of most beautiful habitats like wetlands, heathlands and moors, often run by county wildlife trusts

131
Q

What are marine conservation zones

A

37 sites on UK coast, areas are important to conserve biodiversity of nationally rare, threatened and representative habitats and species in our sees

132
Q

What are advantages of in situ conservation

A

Plants and animals conserved in natural environment, permentanly protects biodiversity and ecosystems and natural and cultural heritage, allows management of area to maintain ecological integrity, provide use of ecologically sustainable land, facilitates scientific research

133
Q

Disadvantages of in situ conservation

A

Endangered habitats fragmented may be too small to survive as population already lost too much genetic diversity, conditions caused habitat or species to become endangered may still be misused by poachers or ecotourists

134
Q

What is repopulation

A

Where biodiversity lost, it may be possible to restore it like otter have been reintroduced in areas in UK, reserve in South Africa cleared away livestock and reintroduced natural fauna, it recreates old ecosystems before human interference

135
Q

What is ex situ conservation

A

Conserving endangered species by activities outside of their natural habitat

136
Q

How do zoos help in ex situ conservation

A

They focus on captive breeding and conducting research to benefit these species

137
Q

How are some ways breeding is done in zoos

A

Modern reproductive technology like freezing sperm, eggs or embryos can preserve lots of genetic material or artificial insemination or in vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer techniques also used with wild animals

138
Q

What do some zoos research

A

Domestic species or common wild species similar to target species which means individuals from endangered species separated from experimental research but beneficial long term

139
Q

What are advantages of ex situ

A

Organisms projected from poachers and predators and health monitored so assistance given if needed and genetic diversity can be measured and selective breeding can increase it using IVF, animals can breed to decrease number of endangered species and conservation sites used as attraction to fund further conservation efforts

140
Q

Disadvantages of ex situ

A

Captive do limited genetic diversity and animals exposed to many diseases not from natural habitat, nutrition difficult to manage and animals may behave abnormally so reproduction harder, environmental conditions hard to achieve and expensive to maintain sustainable environment and hard to reintroduce animals to wild

141
Q

What are botanic gardens

A

Most involved in conservation of endangered species

142
Q

What is a dormant stage of a plant

A

Seeds

143
Q

What does it mean for botanic gardens that seeds produced in large numbers

A

Can be collected from wild with not much disturbance to ecosystem

144
Q

Advantages of botanic gardens

A

Seeds Can be stored and germinated in huge numbers and often breed asexually, botanic gardens can increase plant numbers quickly through tissue culture which provides research for reintroduction to wild

145
Q

What are disadvantages of botanic gardens

A

Difficult to find, collecting seeds causes some disturbance and may have limited genetic diversity, seeds may not survive in a new area if collected somewhere else, seeds stored for too long may not be viable, plants breed asexually reduces genetic diversity

146
Q

What are seed banks

A

Collection of seed samples and aim to store representative samples of seeds from every known species of plant included rarest and most threatened

147
Q

How long do seed bank seeds stay viable for and what else happens to seed bank seeds

A

Some seed viable for decades and some seeds used to prove benefits to humanity like seeds for food crops, building materials and disease resistant crops, seeds also used in habitat reclamation skin repopulation of endangered habitats

148
Q

How are seeds stored to preserve viability

A

Seeds stored in dry or freezing conditions

149
Q

What effects seed storage

A

Moisture effects storage, for 1% decrease of moisture in seed it doubles lifespan and 5oc doubles lifespan too

150
Q

How do seed banks know seeds are still viable

A

They remove and germinate seed samples in Petri dishes of nutrient agar, keeping them in controlled conditions, germination rates monitored and research into physiology of seed dormancy and germination carried out which leads to discovery of most effective storage methods

151
Q

Is loss of habitat and more endangered species a national issue

A

No it’s a global problem

152
Q

What is a solution to loss of habitat

A

International cooperation for conservation of organisms

153
Q

What does CITES stand for

A

Conservation of International trade of endangered species of fauna and flora

154
Q

What is CITES

A

International agreement between most governments agreed in 1973 with aim to ensure international trade in specimens of wildlife doesn’t threaten their survival

155
Q

How many plants and animals recognised as at risk according to CITES

A

25000

156
Q

What is CITES aims

A

Regulate and monitor international trade in certain plants and animals, ensure international trade doesn’t endanger wild populations, ensures wild plant trade prohibited for commercial use, ensure artificially propagated plants have permit, ensure less endangered species traded subject to permit

157
Q

What is problems with CITES

A

Hard to enforce as smuggling of plants, animals and their productions is constant problem

158
Q

What is rio conservation of biological diversity

A

Signed by 150 countries in 1992, it recognises biological diversity more than plants, animals and ecosystems, also about people and our need for food, shelter, medicine and clean environment for us to live in

159
Q

What are aims of Rio conservation of biological diversity

A

Conserve biological diversity, sustainable use of natural components, shared access to genetic resources, sharing of scientific knowledge and technologies, sharing of benefits from genetic resources

160
Q

What does Rio convention encourage

A

Cooperation between counties and encourages each member to develop national strategies for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, states members must use both ex and in situ conservations

161
Q

What does ex situ conservation provide support for

A

Everyone to share their technologies and genetic material

162
Q

How is breeding in zoos strengthened

A

By importing animals from zoos in other countries and importing genetic material like sperm, eggs, embryos and artificial insemination or IVF techniques

163
Q

When will reintroduction of animals bred in captivity fail

A

If no international cooperation and if no wildlife reserves to protect these animals

164
Q

How are plant breeding programmes enhanced

A

Sharing stored specimens

165
Q

What has Kew millennial seed bank done

A

Partnered with 50 different countries and these partners duplicate their collections, so seed information database has 100000 records available for other projects

166
Q

As of 2014 how many seeds did Kew millennial seed bank have and how many of them are duplicated in other countries

A

34,088 plant seeds and 1980405036 seeds in storage, many of them duplicated in atleast one of the 14000 seed banks worldwide

167
Q

What are local conservation schemes

A

Schemes made between government and land owner to enhance biodiversity and conservation at local level

168
Q

What is countryside stewardship scheme

A

Introduced in England in 1991 and applied to land classified as not environmentally sensitive, payments made to farmers to enhance English landscape conservation. Grants available for hedge laying, planting and restoring dry stone walls

169
Q

What were aims of countryside stewardship scheme

A

Improve natural diversity of countryside, enhance/restore landscape, improve public access

170
Q

What was countryside stewardship scheme replaced with in 2005

A

Environmental stewardship scheme

171
Q

What is environmental stewardship scheme

A

Provides findings to farmers to give effective environmental management to their land and aims to provide funding and advice to help land managers conserve, enhance and promote countryside

172
Q

How does the environmental stewardship scheme promote countryside

A

By looking after wildlife, species and their habitats, ensuring land well managed and retains traditional characteristics, protect historic features and natural resources , ensuring traditional livestock and crops conserved and providing opportunities for people to visit and learn about countryside

alevel biology (25 decks)

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