5.5: Antibodies Flashcards
1
Q
Antibodies
A
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells
2
Q
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, what does a B cell do?
A
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody
3
Q
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by doing what?
A
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them
4
Q
What does the primary immune response establish?
A
The primary immune response establishes immunological memory
5
Q
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical what?
A
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites
6
Q
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites.
Describe the antibody binding sites
A
The antibody binding sites are complementary to a specific antigen
7
Q
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites.
The antibody binding sites are complementary to a specific antigen.
How is the massive variety of antibodies possible?
A
The massive variety of antibodies is possible, because they are made of proteins
8
Q
Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites.
The antibody binding sites are complementary to a specific antigen.
The massive variety of antibodies is possible, because they are made of proteins - molecules that occur how?
A
The massive variety of antibodies is possible, because they are made of proteins - molecules that occur in an almost infinite number of forms
9
Q
What are antibodies made up of?
A
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains
10
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are what and are called what?
A
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are:
1. Long
2. Called heavy chains
11
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are what and are known as what?
A
The:
1. Chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains
,while
2. Chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains
12
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as what?
A
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex
13
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called what?
A
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region
14
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
What does each binding site consist of?
A
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids
15
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that do what?
A
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape
16
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that does what?
A
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen
17
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
What is the rest of the antibody known as?
A
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region
18
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region.
What does the constant region do?
A
The constant region binds to receptors on cells such as B cells
19
Q
What are the same for all antibodies?
A
The constant regions are the same for all antibodies
20
Q
What does the specificity of an antibody depend on?
A
The specificity of an antibody depends on its variable regions
21
Q
Each antibody has a differently shaped what?
A
Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region
22
Q
Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to what?
A
Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to different amino acid sequences
23
Q
Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to different amino acid sequences, that is what?
A
Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to different amino acid sequences, that is complementary to one specific antigen
24
Q
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region.
The constant region binds to receptors on cells such as B cells.
Antibodies also have what between their heavy chains and light chains?
A
Antibodies also have hinge regions between their:
- Heavy chains
- Light chains
25
Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region.
The constant region binds to receptors on cells such as B cells.
Antibodies also have hinge regions between their heavy chains and light chains.
There are 2 what between the 2 heavy chains?
There are 2 disulphide bridges between the 2 heavy chains
26
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather do what?
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction
27
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen how?
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways
28
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, how do antibodies assist in its destruction?
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways:
1. They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells
2. They then serve as markers
29
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, what are formed?
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed
30
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to do what?
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together
31
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together.
What does this do?
This makes it easier for the phagocytes to:
1. Locate
2. Engulf
them
32
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together.
This makes it easier for the phagocytes to locate and engulf them, as they are less what?
This makes it easier for the phagocytes to:
1. Locate
2. Engulf
them, as they are less spread-out within the body
33
Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together.
This makes it easier for the phagocytes to locate and engulf them, as they are less spread-out within the body.
Antibodies then serve as markers that do what?
Antibodies then serve as markers that stimulate phagocytes to engulf the bacterial cells to which they are attached
34
Why is agglutination possible?
Agglutination is possible, because each antibody has 2 antigen binding sites
35
Neutralisation:
| Some pathogens make us ill by doing what?
Some pathogens make us ill by producing toxins
36
Neutralisation:
Some pathogens make us ill by producing toxins.
Some antibodies work by doing what?
Some antibodies work by neutralising these toxins
37
Viruses have proteins on their surface that do what?
Viruses have proteins on their surface that:
1. Recognise
2. Bind to
receptors on the surface of the host cell
38
Viruses have proteins on their surface that recognise and bind to receptors on the surface of the host cell.
This is how many viruses do what?
This is how many viruses enter their host cell
39
Viruses have proteins on their surface that recognise and bind to receptors on the surface of the host cell.
This is how many viruses enter their host cell.
What can antibodies do?
Antibodies can:
1. Bind to viruses
2. Stop them attaching to their host cells
40
A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will do what?
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to:
1. Multiply
2. Form a clone of itself
41
A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different what?
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody
42
A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody.
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies where?
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies outside of the body
43
A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody.
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies outside of the body.
It is even better if a single type of antibody can be what?
It is even better if a single type of antibody can be:
1. Isolated
2. Cloned
44
A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody.
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies outside of the body.
It is even better if a single type of antibody can be isolated and cloned.
What are such antibodies known as?
Such antibodies are known as monoclonal antibodies
45
Monoclonal antibodies have a number of useful functions where?
Monoclonal antibodies have a number of useful functions in:
1. Science
2. Medicine
46
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to do what?
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target:
1. Specific substances
2. Specific cells
47
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
What is by far the most successful way to treat cancer so far?
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy
48
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to what?
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells
49
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to what?
These antibodies:
1. Are given to a patient
2. Attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells
50
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block what?
The antibodies:
1. Attach to the surface of their cancer cells
2. Block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth
51
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth.
What is an example?
An example of herceptin
52
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth.
An example of herceptin, a monoclonal antibody used to treat what?
An example of herceptin, a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer
53
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth.
An example of herceptin, a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer.
What is the advantage of direct monoclonal antibody therapy?
The advantage of direct monoclonal antibody therapy is that since the antibodies are:
1. Not toxic
2. Highly specific
,they lead to fewer side effects than other forms of therapy
54
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called what, involves attaching a what drug to the monoclonal antibody?
```
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a:
1. Radioactive
Or,
2. Cytotoxic
drug to the monoclonal antibody
```
55
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that does what) to the monoclonal antibody?
```
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a:
1. Radioactive
Or,
2. Cytotoxic (a drug that kills cells)
drug to the monoclonal antibody
```
56
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
What does the antibody do when it attaches to the cancer cells?
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them
57
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called what that are not found on normal body cells?
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells
58
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be made that will bind to the tumour markers.
Anti-cancer drugs can also be attached to the antibodies.
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, what will they do?
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, they will bind to the tumour markers
59
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be made that will bind to the tumour markers.
Anti-cancer drugs can also be attached to the antibodies.
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, they will bind to the tumour markers.
What does this result in the drug doing?
This results in the drug accumulating in the body where there are cancer cells
60
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be made that will bind to the tumour markers.
Anti-cancer drugs can also be attached to the antibodies.
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, they will bind to the tumour markers.
This results in the drug accumulating in the body where there are cancer cells.
Therefore, the side effects of an antibody-based drug are lower than other drugs, why?
Therefore, the side effects of an antibody-based drug are lower than other drugs, because they accumulate near specific cells
61
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
What are monoclonal antibodies used in this way referred to as?
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as 'magic bullets'
62
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as 'magic bullets' and can be used in what doses?
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way:
1. Are referred to as 'magic bullets'
2. Can be used in smaller doses
63
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as 'magic bullets' and can be used in smaller doses, as they are what?
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way:
1. Are referred to as 'magic bullets'
2. Can be used in smaller doses
,as they are targeted to specific sites
64
As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as 'magic bullets' and can be used in smaller doses, as they are targeted to specific sites.
Using them in smaller doses is not only what, but also reduces any what?
Using them in smaller doses:
1. Is not only cheaper
,but also
2. Reduces any side effects the drug might have
65
Monoclonal antibodies are in invaluable tool in diagnosing disease with over 100 different diagnostic products based on them.
They are important in diagnosing certain cancers.
Example
For example, men with prostate cancer often produce more of a protein called prostate specific antigen (PSA), leading to unusually high levels of it in the blood
66
Monoclonal antibodies are in invaluable tool in diagnosing disease with over 100 different diagnostic products based on them.
They are important in diagnosing certain cancers.
For example, men with prostate cancer often produce more of a protein called prostate specific antigen (PSA), leading to unusually high levels of it in the blood.
By using a monoclonal antibody that interacts with this antigen, what is it possible to obtain?
By using a monoclonal antibody that interacts with this antigen, it is possible to obtain a measure of the level of PSA in a sample of blood
67
Monoclonal antibodies are in invaluable tool in diagnosing disease with over 100 different diagnostic products based on them.
They are important in diagnosing certain cancers.
For example, men with prostate cancer often produce more of a protein called prostate specific antigen (PSA), leading to unusually high levels of it in the blood.
By using a monoclonal antibody that interacts with this antigen, it is possible to obtain a measure of the level of PSA in a sample of blood.
While a higher than normal level of PSA is not itself diagnostic of the disease, what does it give an early warning of?
While a higher than normal level of PSA is not itself diagnostic of the disease, it gives an early warning of:
1. Its possibility
2. The need for further tests
68
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
What do these pregnancy testing kits rely on?
These pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that:
1. The placenta produces a hormone called hCG
2. This is found in the mother's urine
69
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother's urine.
What does hCG stand for?
hCG stands for human chorionic gonadotropin
70
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother's urine.
What happens to monoclonal antibodies present on the what of a home pregnancy testing kit?
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles
71
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother's urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, what does it do?
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies
72
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother's urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies.
What moves along the strip?
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip
73
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother's urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies.
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is what?
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is trapped by a different type of antibody
74
It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother's urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies.
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is trapped by a different type of antibody, creating what?
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is trapped by a different type of antibody, creating a coloured line
75
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. What does production of monoclonal antibodies involve?
Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice
76
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
What are these mice used to do?
These mice are used to produce both:
1. Antibodies
2. Tumour cells
77
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately doing what?
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice
78
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite what?
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering
79
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including what, saving many lives?
Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including:
1. Cancer
2. Diabetes
,saving many lives
80
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of what?
There have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis
81
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (what)?
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent)
82
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. What does testing for the safety of new drugs present?
Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers
83
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
What happened in March 2006?
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody in London
84
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (what) in London?
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London
85
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London.
What happened within minutes?
Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure
86
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London.
Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure, probably as a result of what?
Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure, probably as a result of T cells:
1. Overproducing chemicals that stimulate an immune response
Or,
2. Attacking the body tissues
87
The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London.
Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure, probably as a result of T cells overproducing chemicals that stimulate an immune response or attacking the body tissues.
All the volunteers survived, but what does it raise issues about?
All the volunteers survived, but it raises issues about the conduct of drug trials
88
We must balance the advantages that a new medicine provides with the dangers that its use might bring.
Only then can we make informed decisions at what levels about the ethical use of drugs such as monoclonal antibodies?
Only then can we make informed decisions at:
1. Individual
2. Local
3. National
4. Global
levels about the ethical use of drugs such as monoclonal antibodies
89
Antibody concentration in the primary response:
1. Infection.
2. Then what is there?
Then there is the lag phase
90
Antibody concentration in the primary response:
1. Infection.
2. Then there is the lag phase.
3. Antibodies produced.
4. Antibody level rises to do what?
Antibody level rises to combat the infection
91
Antibody concentration in the primary response:
1. Infection.
2. Then there is the lag phase.
3. Antibodies produced.
4. Antibody level rises to combat the infection.
5. The infection is dealt with.
6. What does the antibody level then do?
The antibody level then declines
92
```
Antibody concentration in the primary response:
1. Infection.
2. Then there is the lag phase.
3. Antibodies produced.
4. Antibody level rises to combat the infection.
5. The infection is dealt with.
6. The antibody level then declines.
It is what?
```
It is short-lived
93
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
| 1. After the primary response, antibodies do not do what?
After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood
94
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
| 1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so what?
After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines
95
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
What does the re-infection cause?
The re-infection causes a:
1. Much more rapid
2. Stronger
immune response
96
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises when?
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner
97
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches what?
The concentration of antibodies:
1. Rises sooner
2. Reaches a higher concentration
98
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more what than in the primary response?
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response
99
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to do what?
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection
100
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less what to produce the same number of plasma cells?
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells
101
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater what compared to the primary response?
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response
102
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of what?
This is due to the presence of memory cells
103
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made when)?
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response)
104
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for what?
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for:
1. Antigen presentation
2. Clonal selection
105
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for antigen presentation and clonal selection.
This is what?
This is long-lived
106
Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for antigen presentation and clonal selection.
This is long-lived and is the basis of what?
This is:
1. Long-lived
2. The basis of vaccination
