5.1 A Comparison of the work of Immanuel Kant and Aristotle with regard to Deontology and Virtue Ethics respectively

Question 1

core principle of kant’s deontological ethics

Answer 1

morality based on duty, not consequences, actions are right if they follow moral laws regardless of their outcomes

Question 2

what is the categorical imperative?

Answer 2

a universal law that applies to to all rational beings and is based on reason alone

Question 3

deontology

Answer 3

judges morality based on whether actions follow moral rules (duty-based)

Question 4

consequentialism

Answer 4

judges morality based on the outcomes (eg utilitarianism)

Question 5

kant first formulation of the categorical imperative: the principle of universality

Answer 5

• a moral command that applies to all rational beings, regardless of desires
  eg) stealing cannot be universalised, because if everybody did society would collapse

Question 6

kant second formulation: humanity

Answer 6

• treat humanity in yourself and others always as an end never merely as a means
  eg) slavery is wrong as it uses people as a means to an end

Question 7

strengths of kants argument of deontology

Answer 7

• takes account of justice
• makes a sharp distinction between duty and inclination
• uses objective reason for the basis of his argument

Question 8

weaknesses of kants arguments of deontology

Answer 8

• bases theory on the rationality of humans, which may not all have the same temperaments/desires
• creates absolute rules
• good will is only motivation

Question 9

virtue ethics

Answer 9

ethical theory that locates moral value in the agent performing the action, emphasises need to develop a virtuous disposition and judge actions in a broader context using practical wisdom

Question 10

contingent

Answer 10

dependent on circumstances

Question 11

kant the good will

Answer 11

the only good thing is a good will that acts out of duty, not personal gain

Question 12

w.d ross deontology

Answer 12

• argued that morality should be grounded in our moral intuitions
• explains why we regard certain courses of action with reference to ‘prima facie’ duties/obligations

Question 13

w.d ross deontology - prima facie duty

Answer 13

• a duty that is all binding, all other things being equal, that is unless it is overridden or trumped by another duty or duties
  eg) duty to keep promises; unless stronger moral considerations override we ought to keep a promise made

Question 14

examples of prima facie duties

Answer 14

• fidelity
• self-improvement
• justice and fairness
• gratitude

Question 15

criticisms of ross’s ethical argument

Answer 15

• does not explain why we have moral intuitions in the first place
• how do we know which duties apply in which cases?
• conflict of duties

Question 16

thomas nagel deontology

Answer 16

for nagel, the central question in ethics is reasoning behind our moral choices, he makes a distinction between agent-relative and agent-neutral reasons

Question 17

thomas nagel deontology - agent-relative reasons

Answer 17

stem from personal desires, commitments and projects

Question 18

thomas nagel deontology - agent-neutral reasons

Answer 18

consider everyone, not just the moral agent making the choice, they are impersonal and objective

Question 19

thomas nagel - critique of kant

Answer 19

• morality is more than reason: involves emotions not just rational duty
• subjectivity in morality: diff people experience morality
• moral luck: some people may face harder moral choices than others

Question 20

aristotle - the function argument

Answer 20

• everybody has a purpose (telos), the good is achieved by ultimately fulfilling that purpose
• the unique function of humans is the use of reason
• to live a good line (eudaimonia), humans must fulfill their function by acting in accordance with reason
• virtue is excellence in performing our function well, leading to flourishing

Question 21

aristotle eudaimonia

Answer 21

• saw ‘happiness’ or eudaimonia as the goal in life, but argued that pleasure doesn’t lead to happiness
• the value of pleasure is determined by the value of the activity being performed
• complete and self-sufficient life
• requires development of virtues; like courage and wisdom
• achieved by acting in harmony with reason

Question 22

virtue theory

Answer 22

• the development of a good character traits or virtues
• roots back to aristotle and plato, which believed that culverting good character traits are the key to living a good life

Question 23

strengths of virtue theory

Answer 23

• offers flexible moral guidelines
• takes account a whole person when judging their moral worth
• enables us to develop a moral education

Question 24

weaknesses of virtue theory

Answer 24

• doesn’t give us definite rules so cannot help with decision making
• issue with moral realism: lacks universal application as definitions of virtue will differ from community to community
• problem of finding the mean: not all actions have a mean such as adultery, theft or murder

Question 25

is virtue theory compatible with religious approaches to ethics?

Answer 25

- virtue theory is compatible with a religious way of life, with a focus on flourishing and happiness achieved through the development of a moral character - however, philosophers such as phillipa foot argue that virtue ethics are not really compatible because religious doctrines on morality are fundamentally legalistic and inflexible