5. Paradigms Flashcards
Q: Who is Thomas Kuhn and what is his most influential work?
A: Thomas Kuhn is one of the most influential philosophers of science in the twentieth century. His book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” is one of the most cited academic books of all time. He emphasized understanding how science has actually been practiced historically, rather than how it ought to be conducted.
Q: How did Kuhn’s approach to the philosophy of science differ from Karl Popper’s?
A: While Karl Popper focused on how science ought to be conducted (normative approach), Kuhn emphasized understanding how science has actually been practiced historically (descriptive approach).
Q: What is a paradigm according to Kuhn?
A: A paradigm, according to Kuhn, is a set of universally recognized scientific achievements that provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners. It is the constellation of beliefs, values, and techniques shared by members of a scientific community, acting as the framework within which scientists operate.
Q: What are some forms a paradigm can take?
A: A paradigm can take several forms, including:
- A particular experimental technique.
- A school of thought within a discipline (e.g., behaviorism in psychology).
- A worldview that eclipses all others for a period of time, such as Aristotelian physics, Newtonian physics, or Einsteinian physics.
Q: What is “incommensurability” in the context of scientific paradigms?
A: Incommensurability refers to the idea that scientific paradigms are often so fundamentally different from one another that they cannot be directly compared. This is because they involve different sets of assumptions, methodologies, and terminologies.
Q: How did Kuhn illustrate the concept of paradigms with behaviorism?
A: Kuhn illustrated paradigms with behaviorism, which was the dominant paradigm in psychology during the 1940s. This paradigm shaped research questions, methods, and interpretations. For example, Pavlov’s experiments on classical conditioning exemplified core principles of behaviorism, guiding subsequent research.
Q: What is the early phase of science according to Kuhn?
A: The early phase of science, or “immature science,” is when the scientific community has not yet agreed upon a common framework or set of theories. This phase involves diverse and sometimes conflicting theories as scientists interpret observations differently.
Q: How did the history of electrical research illustrate the early phase of science?
A: The history of electrical research in the first half of the eighteenth century showed that without a standard theory, scientists had different explanations for electrical phenomena. It wasn’t until Franklin’s comprehensive theory emerged that a common framework for future research was established.
Q: What is “Normal Science” according to Kuhn?
A: Normal Science is the phase when a standard theory is accepted, and the scientific activity consists of solving puzzles rather than testing fundamental theories. Scientists assume the paradigm to solve puzzles, focusing on incremental problem-solving within the accepted framework.
Q: How does Kuhn define puzzle-solving in science?
A: Puzzle-solving involves working within the accepted paradigm to solve specific problems defined by current theory. It is a key activity in normal science, where scientists engage in detailed work without questioning fundamental principles.
Q: What is Kuhn’s criterion for demarcation between science and non-science?
A: Kuhn used puzzle-solving as his demarcation criterion. He argued that scientific disciplines generate solvable puzzles, while non-scientific disciplines do not. For example, astrology’s failures did not lead to research puzzles, distinguishing it from scientific practices.
Q: How did Kuhn’s view on observations challenge traditional views of science?
A: Kuhn argued that there is no such thing as a neutral observation; all knowledge is theory-laden. Observations are meaningful only within the context of the broader theoretical framework, contrasting with the reductionist view that complex phenomena can be understood by breaking them down into simpler components.
Q: How did the Millikan Oil Drop Experiment illustrate Kuhn’s idea of theory-laden observations?
A: The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment showed that scientists’ observations are guided by existing theories. Millikan knew to look for specific behaviors of oil droplets based on theories of electromagnetism and atomic structure, demonstrating that observations are shaped by theoretical frameworks.
Q: What is the implication of Kuhn’s view that there is no neutral observation?
A: Kuhn’s view implies that scientific data is interpreted through the lens of different paradigms, challenging the idea of an objective empirical basis. This suggests that truth is not absolute but relative to the prevailing paradigm.
Q: How does Kuhn’s view on scientific progress differ from traditional views?
A: Kuhn argued that scientific progress is not linear but occurs through phases defined by dominant paradigms. Progress involves shifting from one paradigm to another, each providing its own framework for understanding the world, rather than moving closer to an ultimate truth.
