5 - Learning & Memory Flashcards
This is the term for the acquisition of new information (facts).
Learning
This is the term for retention of new information.
Memory
This type of memory is used for skills and habits that have been used so much they are automatic (i.e., riding a bike).
Procedural memory
What are the anatomic substrates used for procedural memory?
Cerebellum – motor skills
Nucleus Accumbens – non-motor
What are other names for procedural memory?
Implicit memory
Non-declarative memory
Reflexive memory
This type of memory is the conscious recognition/recollection of learned facts and experiences.
Declarative memory (also called Explicit memory)
Declarative (Explicit) memory is subdivided into two forms, which are…
Episodic – memory of events
Semantic – memory of words, language, and rules
Declarative and Procedural memory are coded for using distinct anatomical substrates, but the _________ is not very different.
Physiology
What is anatomic substrate used for Declarative (Explicit) memory?
Cortex
We can also classify memory based on its duration, what are these different classifications?
Short-term memory – seconds to hours
Long-term memory – years
Working memory – recalling a fact/memory for use (may be a subset of short-term memory)
The production of memory and learning requires the induction of…
Neuronal and synaptic plasticity
***Have to physically change the neurons to make memories and learn
This term refers to alterations in the CNS based on use.
Plasticity
In CNS plasticity, it may be the ________ function that’s altered or there may be changes in the physical structure of the _______ (i.e., more synapses or new branches to new cells).
Synaptic
Neurons
In CNS plasticity, it has many forms. To change synaptic functioning, it is either _______ _______ or _______ _______. To change the structure of neurons, there can be a _______ of synapses, structural changes in ________, or structural changes in the ________ of the neuron.
Post-tetanic potentiation Long-term potentiation (LTP) Gain/loss Dendrites Soma
Describe how post-tetanic stimulation works (a type of change in synaptic functioning).
– Brief, high-frequency discharge of presynaptic neuron allows more calcium to enter the terminal than can be “dealt” with
– With more calcium, more vesicles fuse which produces an increase in NT release that lasts about 60 seconds
– This increases the probability of action potentials in post-synaptic cell
This is the term for a series of changes in the pre- and post-synaptic neurons of a synapse which leads to increased response to the released neurotransmitter. Lasts for hours.
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
LTP usually follows a (STRONG/WEAK) stimulation.
Strong
For neuronal plasticity, it can also be associated with gene transcription related to increased _______. This occurs in both the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic cells. The proteins produced include NT synthetic enzymes, NT receptors, and proteins required for growth/synapse formation.
CREB
Learning and the formation of new memories can be blocked by blocking ________ synthesis.
Protein
This can create a change in synapse structure (permanent) and create new synapses via protein synthesis.
CREB
***Works for both LTP and neuronal plasticity!
Creating Declarative (Explicit) memories is a 4-step process. These steps are…
1) Encoding
2) Storage of the information
3) Consolidation
4) Retrieval
This step in creating Declarative (Explicit) memory is attending to new information (focus or attention) and linking it to previous memories. Emotion is an important component.
Step 1 - Encoding
This step in creating Declarative (Explicit) memory is the retention of information over time. Short-term memory plays a big role in this (long-term memory not quite so important in this instance).
Step 2 - Storage of the information
What anatomical substrates are needed for short-term memory?
Hippocampus
Parahippocampal Cortex
Prefrontal Cortex
In short-term memory, anatomically it also requires interconnections to the neocortex and amygdala via the…
Nucleus basalis of Meynert
***This is a cholinergic projection that is a particular target of Alzheimer’s disease!
For short-term memory, its physiological substrate is _______ because we want to produce changes that will last hours not seconds.
LTP
***LTP is making changes in the anatomical substrates of short-term memory!
This type of memory is our temporary storehouse for memory.
Short-term memory
In creating Declarative (Explicit) memories, step 2 is storage of the information. This is just a temporary storage and requires what?
Hippocampus
Parahippocampal Cortex
Prefrontal Cortex
LTP – By having this type of plasticity done in the areas above, it allows us to store the information
***Remember, these are all components of short-term memory!
This step in creating Declarative (Explicit) memory is the process of making a memory permanent. It involves physical changes in synaptic structure (LTP). We’re changing short-term memory into long-term memory here.
Step 3 - Consolidation
Consolidating memory from short- to long-term requires what anatomical substrates?
Hippocampus
Temporal lobes
Papez circuit
For consolidation, the “memory” is repeatedly sent through the Papez circuit, thus setting up the conditions required to induce LTP and neuronal plasticity because of its strong repeated activation/stimulation. Describe the Papez circuit.
Neurons fire over and over because they synapse together to the following in a continuous circuit —
Hypothalamus/Mammillary bodies
Anterior Thalamus
Cingulate Cortex
Hippocampus
For consolidation, due to the Papez circuit and the plasticity making changes to the cortex, etc., eventually the _______ _______ is not required for access to the memory.
Limbic system
It appears that long-term memories are stored in the area of cortex related to the modality of the individual components. This means the visual components are stored in the _______ _______, auditory in the ________ _______, etc.
Visual cortex
Auditory cortex
***For example, say I have a memory of watching a basketball game. The memory of the sounds I heard during the game will be stored in my auditory cortex, and the players and things I saw will be stored in my visual cortex. The memory is broken down.
This step of creating Declarative (Explicit) memory is recalling or using the memory and bringing it into working memory. It can be modified or lost at this point.
Step 4 - Retrieval
For memory retrieval, long-term memory is basically “reassembling” the memory. What anatomical substrates are required for this?
Neocortex
Parahippocampal regions
Hippocampus
In the memory retrieval, information related to each component of the memory is sent to the ________ _______. From here, those components are sent to the ________ where the entire memory is “reconstructed”. Information then travels back through the _________ to the cortex.
Parahippocampal regions
Hippocampus
Parahippocampus
***Remember, the different “components” of the memory started out in different portions of the cortex (i.e., visual cortex, auditory cortex, etc.)
This is important in prolonging the life of the cortical “trace” of the memory.
Parahippocampus
Working memory is the use of the retrieved memories, and it has a three-component model which is…
Central Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial Loop
What are the locations for the three-component model of working memory?
Central Executive – Prefrontal cortex
Phonological Loop – Broca’s and Wernicke’s
Visuospatial Loop – Occipital Cortex associated with vision
Describe the three-component model of working memory.
Central Executive is the main component which directs the other two. It tells them “we need to remember this thing” and they do.
Phonological Loop is what provides/interprets the auditory information associated with the memory.
Visuospatial Loop is what provides/interprets the visual information associated with the memory.
This type of memory is a special case and is unlike other long-term memories. It provides a detailed memory of space.
Spatial memory
For spatial memory, a detailed memory of space is stored in the _________ using special pyramidal cells in CA1 known as _______ cells. It appears that this spatial map serves as an “anchor” for the reconstruction of memory.
Hippocampus
Place
________ cells are neurons that are active only at specific places (and one newly discovered type is especially strongly activated if you got a reward in that place).
Place
What inputs do place cells (neurons) receive?
Grid cells
Head direction cells
Border neurons
Explain what grid cells are (give input to place cells).
Grid cells are found in the Entorhinal cortex and are active when exploring an area (you have to be in the area for them to be active). They create a grid of the area (triangular or hexagonal).
What are head direction cells?
They give input to place cells by telling which direction your head was pointing to see/explore that particular area.
What are border cells?
They input to place cells by firing when you’re near a border (wall, etc.)
For spatial memory, a special map in the __________ codes for the physical space of the memory. _______ neurons in CA1 respond to specific locations within the space (i.e., a window, door, etc.). This map is believed to anchor the entire memory.
Hippocampus
Place
Explain the pathway that EAA uses to get Ca++ into the cell.
EAA binds to Non-NMDA receptor and NMDA receptor. The EAA bound to the Non-NMDA causes an influx of Na+. This causes a depolarization that forces Mg++ out of the NMDA receptor, allowing an influx of Ca++.
For LTP, explain how changes are made in the pre-synaptic neuron.
NMDA allows an influx of Ca++ (secondary messenger). Calcium will react with Calcineurin, which leads to the activation of Nitric Oxide Synthase. This enzyme will then produce Nitric Oxide (NO), which is lipid-soluble and can diffuse back into the pre-synaptic cell. The NO creates an increase of cGMP, resulting in an increase of NT release (higher release than normal).
For LTP, explain how changes are made in the post-synaptic neuron.
NMDA allows an influx of Ca++ (secondary messenger). Calcium will react with Calmodulin, which leads to an increase in Adenylyl Cyclase and ultimately cAMP. cAMP activates the phosphorylation of the AMPA (Non-NMDA) receptor. When phosphorylated, more Na+ comes into the cell (via the AMPA receptor) than normally would without phosphorylation. This results in a bigger post-synaptic response!
LTP is also associated with gene transcription related to increased _________. This increase is a result of increased cAMP (from Ca++ influx via NMDA receptor). This gene transcription leads to alterations of synapses structure and function.
CREB
***Remember, CREB is associated with LTP as well as neuronal plasticity!
