4c - Theoretical explanations of the patterns and trends - Functionalist, Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Weberian, Post-modern views. Flashcards
Functionalist explanations. Parsons
Parsons believes that differences in the social roles associated with age groups are vital for the smooth functioning of society. For example, Parsons argues that adolescence is a time when children begin to develop independence from their parents. In industrial societies such as the USA it is essential that the workforce is mobile so that it can move to where workers are needed by manufacturing industry. The nuclear family is functionally well-adapted to this type of society. It is therefore vital that children develop independence from their parents. Youth culture therefore involves a degree of rebellion against parental discipline which can cause conflict between the generations.
Functionalist explanations. Parsons 2
Parsons also notes that the elderly have less status in US society than in most other types of society. Once children have grown up and men have retired, the elderly lose their most important social roles. In addition, they may be relatively isolated from their children who tend to focus more on their marriage partners and their children than they do on there parents.
Functionalist explanations. Parsons eval
Parsons views have been widely criticised, for its determinism, (it assumes that everyone follows a similar life course). Parsons assumes that age groups conform to generally agreed roles. However, postmodern theories suggest that age differences are breaking down. Feminist theorist criticise Parsons for assuming that women both do and should be socialised into ‘feminine’ roles as mothers and housewives, while conflict theorises stress that Parsons ignores the conflict and exploitation involved in relationships between age groups. Parsons took all his findings from work done by middle class males in their own communities in the USA so his findings may lack generalisability.
Marxist explanations.
Marxists have used the theory of the reserve army of labour to show how the ruling classes use young and old people to fill the gaps in the job market during economic boom times, treating them with short term contracts which mean their position is weaker and may well be paid less than full time, permanent workers. In addition, state benefits such as full levels of income support are withheld until young people reach 25 which is evidence that the powerful law makers in society see youth as a less than equal group. Older people are used as scapegoats by being portrayed as drains on our resources. Thus, the bourgeoisie use older and younger people to blame for economic problems
Marxist explanations. eval
The reserve army of labour theory is used for many marginalised groups it is not clear why certain age groups are disadvantaged. Although it explains the marginalisation of older and younger workers it does not explain why these groups, rather than any other groups are targeted.
Feminist explanations - Gannon
Gannon illustrates the way in which women suffer from more inequality in older age than men. She argues that male scientists have labelled the menopause as a disease and because it is seen as a disease, it is frequently attributed a whole range of ‘problems’ from low sex drive to osteoporosis despite a lack of evidence demonstrating that it is the cause. Labelling the menopause as a disease ‘advances patriarchal ideology by rendering all women over 50 sick. It also disguises the real causes of he problems of women as they age which are the ‘economic and political oppression of women – both of which intensify with age’. This suggests that ageism may be experienced acutely by women because of the way it interacts with patriarchy.
INTERPRETIVIST explanations Hockey and james 1
Hockey and James argue that both childhood and old age are social constructs. They are linked by the common themes of dependency yet both children and the elderly could be much more independent than society usually allows them to be. Hockey and James argue that they can resist their status. Resistance can take three forms.
- They can use alternative sources of power to resist. For example, wealthy elderly people might high power because of their wealth.
- A second method of resistance is to deny membership of a subordinate group and to pretend to belong to a higher status one. Teenagers often pretend to be eighteen to buy alcoholic drinks. Elderly people may cling on to roles which make them feel or appear younger.
INTERPRETIVIST explanations Hockey and james 2
- Being a member of a disadvantaged social category can in itself be a source of power. It provides opportunities to mock the way you are treated. Hockey recounts how residents of old people’s home would act in deliberately childish ways, sticking their tongue out for example, in response to being infantilized by care workers. As well as symbolic resistance such as this, some residents were deliberately obstructive. This was a way in which some of the residents were able to assert a measure of independence until the end.
INTERPRETIVIST explanations Hockey and james eval
Interpretivist approaches underplay the fixed elements of age identities, assuming that too much is open to negotiation. In reality old people are unlikely to be able to negotiate themselves out of declining physical strength and increasing levels of dependence and ill health.
Weberian explanations Parkin
Parkin uses the theory of social closure to explain why older people may be blocked from some areas of social life, for example, gaining promotion or getting jobs. Parkin refers to strategies which are used to create and maintain privileges for certain groups. The exclusion strategy may be used by groups anxious to protect their privileges from new recruits so that groups may insist on a certain criteria to restrict people joining and gaining their privileges. For example,16 year olds cannot vote in England and Wales.
Weberian explanations eval
Weberians can be criticised for failing to explain why this happens. Their theories are often too descriptive and lack analysis.
Postmodern explanations - Pilcher
Jane Pilcher notes that the modern form of the life course is breaking down. The boundaries between different stages may be increasingly blurred. As people become more concerned about self-identity they may present themselves or act in ways which contradict the norms associated with different life course stages. For example, children may dress more like adults and old or middle aged people may dress in youthful styles. Pilcher says ‘Some theorists have argued that the life course is becoming destandardized, that age-based transitions and standards of behaviour, which previously were strictly defined are becoming less fixed’.
Postmodern explanations - Featherstone and Hepworth
Featherstone and Hepworth argue that In recent times the life course of the classes, middle classes in particular have begun to be deconstructed. For example:
- Children and adults are becoming more alike so that gestures, postures, leisure pursuits, ways of dressing and so on are becoming more similar to one another.
- Middle class adults reaching retirement with good pensions can afford to continue enjoying consumer-culture lifestyles having a high disposable income to spend on leisure goods and services.
- Ageing has increasingly come to be seen in positive terms rather than as part of an inevitable decline towards infirmity and dependence. Even after retirement from paid work many middle class people continue to make a valuable contribution to the community
Postmodern explanations - Blaikie
Andrew Blaikie concentrates on the image of retirement arguing that attitudes to retirement have changed dramatically and stereotypes of old age have broken down. He attributes this partly to the development of consumer culture. With an ageing population those over retirement age make up an increasingly numerous group. They have become an important market for companies wishing to sell goods and services, and therefore their status has risen.
Postmodern explanations - eval
Postmodern theories may be criticised for underplaying the fact that class, gender and ethnic divisions continue to shape the experience of old age. White men from higher social classes tend to enjoy more prosperous and fulfilling retirement than other groups. Postmodern views on age and the life course run the risk of exaggerating the degree to which society has been freed from the influence of age on social life.
