2c - Theoretical explanations of the patterns and trends Functionalist, Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Weberian, Post-modern views AND FEMINISTS

Question 1

Functionalist explanations - Parsons

Answer 1

Parsons felt that separate gender roles for men and women were helpful to societies. Women were more suited to what he called expressive roles – those emphasising caring and emotions, while men were the ideal candidates for instrumental roles, those that required qualities of competition and achievement, such as paid employment, meaning that women will be less motivated and less suited to the labour market and will be paid less.
From this viewpoint the pay gap between men and women is justified because it reflects the fact that men have greater orientation to paid work. Women are more likely to take career breaks and work part-time but men will be able to build up their skills unbroken employment leading to higher pay.

Question 2

Functionalists explanations evaluation - feminists

Answer 2

Feminist see functionalist views as a way of justifying inequality and a patriarchal labour market where women cluster in lower-paid occupations (horizontal segregation) and are concentrated in the lower levels of better-paid occupations (vertical segregation). They see gender differences in motivation as the result of gendered socialisation through the family, education, the media and peers and not anything ‘natural’.

Question 3

Functionalists explanations evaluation - socialisation

Answer 3

Connell argues that boys tend to be socialised into a style of Hegemonic (dominating) masculinity which stresses toughness, independence and aggression which crowds out other masculine styles such as artistic and gay masculine identities, so they soon learn to conceal them.
For girls socialisation is very different. Skelton found in Benwood Primary School that teachers tend to reinforce such gender stereotyping, for example by making negative judgements about female confidence in subjects such as mathematics. These gender processes have a profound influence on subject choice - Arts and social science - females. Sciences, mathematics, IT - males.

Question 4

weberian explanations

Answer 4

Weberian approaches explain inequality by examining the social class, status and power differences between groups. When applied to gender, this means looking at how the labour market is divided up according to different pay, holiday entitlements, pension rights, working conditions and how this affects men and women. Barron and Norris (1976) argue that the labour market is divided into two sectors, a primary sector consisting of secure, well-paid jobs with good prospects and a secondary sector characterised by poor pay, insecurity and no ladder of promotion. It is very difficult to move from the secondary to the primary sector.

Question 5

weberian explanations - why women are found in secondary sector 1

Answer 5

Women’s ‘unsuitability’ - Employers may hold stereotypical beliefs about the unsuitability of women for primary sector roles. West and Zimmerman and Hartnett note that there are still powerful cultural myths subscribed to by some employers:
• Workers do not like working for a female manager (making them less eligible for promotion to management positions).
• Women are less dependable (and so cannot be trusted to fulfil delegated tasks).
• Women are financially dependent on men (and so need pay rises/promotion less).
• Women will stop work when they marry and have children (and so there is little point investing in their long-term training).
• Working mothers cause their children damage (so for the children’s sake women should stay at home – and should not be given management jobs since these can require long or unsociable hours).

Question 6

weberian explanations - why women are found in secondary sector 2

Answer 6

Disrupted career development - Jobs with good promotion prospects often recruit people young and require from them several years of continuous service. Few mechanisms exist to enable staff to take time out and return to a similar position. Social pressure to have a family leads to some women finding that child-rearing, even for a couple of years, can mean going back to square one of their career. Caplow (1954) argues that the husband’s career may even dictate the geographical movement of the family and wives are sometimes forced to leave their jobs as a consequence, affecting their chances of a continuous career.

Question 7

weberian explanations - why women are found in secondary sector 3

Answer 7

Weak legal and political framework supporting women - Both the Equal Pay and Sex Discrimination Acts are ineffective in protecting women’s employment rights. Coussins describes the Sex Discrimination Act as ‘feeble’ as there are many areas of employment to which it does not apply. Further, she doubts the commitment of governments to eliminate gender inequality. There is limited access to nursery care and little support for employers to provide crèche facilities.

Question 8

weberian explanations eval

Answer 8

Bradley (1997) points out that the theory fails to explain inequalities in the same sector. For example, teaching is not a secondary labour-market occupation, yet women are less likely than men to gain high-status jobs in this profession. Whilst 70% of teachers are female, only 35% of senior jobs in teaching are held by women.

Question 9

Feminism

Answer 9

Most feminists share the assumption that women are disadvantaged in comparison with men. In addition, they normally subscribe to the view that these inequalities are ‘socially constructed’ and not natural differences. Most societies see gender differences so men are more likely to be allocated to breadwinner roles and women to childcare roles. Feminists usually regard these gender differences as socially constructed and socially maintained, and so they say they can be changed.

Question 10

Liberal feminists

Answer 10

Liberal feminists seek equal rights with men and campaign for the removal of all obstacles which deny women the same freedom of choice as men. Liberal feminism has been highly successful in its campaigns for achieving equality. However, liberal feminists argue that gender inequalities still persist. However they still celebrate the huge strides made by girls in areas like education. (Add more)

Question 11

Liberal feminists - Sommerville

Answer 11

argues that it is important to introduce new policies to help working parents. The working hours and the culture of many jobs are incompatible with family life. Many jobs, whether done by men or women, are based upon the idea of the male breadwinner who relies upon a non-working wife to take full responsibility for children. (see Family pack)

Question 12

Liberal feminists evaluation

Answer 12

• Liberal feminists tend to base their ideas upon male assumptions and norms. This includes following men into paid work and rationality. This encourages women to be more like men and denies any qualities of femininity which may be associated with nurturing and cooperation. As a result liberal feminists are accused of emphasising public life at the expense of private life. Radical feminists argue that liberal feminists are not demanding enough and should be much more radical in their expectaions.
• Triple systems feminists criticise liberal feminists for failing to see differences between women, so that they assume the needs and pressures of middle class white women are the same as those for women of different ethnicities and classes.

Question 13

Marxist/socialist feminists

Answer 13

Socialist and Marxist feminists share the view that capitalism is bad for men and women. They view it as an exploitative system which creates huge class inequalities. However, as feminists they recognise that the struggle is not just against capitalism but also against sexism and patriarchy.

Question 14

Marxist/socialist feminists - class differences

Answer 14

One of the strengths of the socialist/Marxist approach is its emphasis upon class divisions. Other feminists often neglect the importance of class. Skeggs accuses many feminists of advancing ‘individualist’ values and neglecting the constant influence of class in women’s lives. There are class differences between women and this means they do not all enjoy the same incomes, lifestyles or aspirations. The life chances of the female pharmacist or lawyer are much better than those of the female factory worker or office cleaner. Indeed, in the opinion of one feminist sociologist: ‘Women’s opportunities have widened, but class differences between women are more powerful than any gender-based similarities’ - Delamont.

Question 15

Marxist/socialist feminists - reserve army of labour

Answer 15

Women fill it - Freedman notes, married women are supposed to be dependent on their husband’s wages and to give priority to their home responsibilities, so this should make them more willing to leave employment if demand drops.

Question 16

Marxist/socialist feminists eval

Answer 16

• Radical feminists criticise Marxist feminists for failing to prioritise women’s issues. They disagree that class issues should take precedence over gender issues.
• Non capitalist societies (‘primitive’ cultures / socialist and communist countries) are also based on patriarchy so some argue that capitalism cannot be the sole cause of women’s oppression.

Question 17

radical feminists

Answer 17

Radical feminists, such as Kate Millett, believe the most fundamental conflict in society is between all men and all women. The main enemy of women is ‘patriarchy’: ‘the combination of social, economic and cultural systems which ensures male supremacy’. Delphy and Leonard see the family as the fundamental cornerstone for patriarchy.

Question 18

radical feminists - Dworkin

Answer 18

Argued that patriarchy is based upon sexual exploitation and was particularly critical of pornography, which she says objectifies women and sets the scene for sexual violence against women. She therefore attempted to get pornography outlawed and pornographers prosecuted, and held accountable for the rape of women by other men. Dworkin is credited as having suggested that “all heterosexual sex is like rape” which she explains as meaning that if women understood the true nature of the oppression they face in sexual relationships then they wouldn’t agree to sex, hence all sex can be seen as rape because most women are not truly conscious of their own victim status, so can’t give consent. Dworkin also argues that any sexual encounter where men achieve orgasm and women do not is a fundamental exploitation.

Question 19

radical feminists evaluation

Answer 19

• It implies that nothing has really changed over the years (men have always ruled).Yet this overlooks significant historical shifts in male-female relationships. Indeed, Morgan suggests that the term ‘patriarchy’ should be replaced by the more flexible concept of ‘sexual stratification’
• It is too one-sided, suggesting that men exercise fixed power over women in all areas of life. This overlooks the possibility of women having greater power or at least ‘equality’ in some social areas.

Question 20

Postmodern feminists

Answer 20

Postmodern feminists are much more interested in differences between women. For example, postmodern feminists deny that there is a common ‘essence’ to women – the individual differences between women are just as striking as the differences between men and women. Postmodernists argue that people have been released from stereotyped gender roles and this gives them greater freedom to choose their own personal lifestyles and identities.

Question 21

Postmodern feminists - living doll

Answer 21

Walter’s book ‘Living Doll’ argues that the rise of internet porn, the surge in cosmetic surgery and the hyper sexualisation of women has led to an unprecedented rise in the way in which women are objectified. Walter believes that women are judged on their looks and this has led to inequalities where women are not taken seriously. She sees feminism as more necessary than ever as women face a resurgence of discrimination.

Question 22

Postmodern feminists eval

Answer 22

• There is little political engagement from women towards feminism which suggests that there is no consensus on the further need for a third wave. Also, these feminists are diverse within themselves and offer little in terms of a unified set of solutions to any gender inequality which does exist.
• Oakley and Mitchell question whether there really has been a systematic backlash against women’s rights in Britain

Question 23

Triple system feminism 1

Answer 23

In a later work, Walby identifies three interacting systems: racism, capitalism and patriarchy. But the main difference is that she now places the major emphasis on patriarchy, which she defines as ‘a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women’.

Question 24

Triple system feminism 2

Answer 24

Walby describes patriarchal relations as existing in six interacting ‘structures’: domestic life, employment, state policies, male violence against women, sexuality and cultural institutions (eg. media, education, religion). She insists it can take account of class and race variations and she recognises that it changes over time.It has also changed in form: the main site of women’s oppression has shifted from the ‘private’ household to the more ‘public’ spheres of employment, culture and the state.

Question 25

Triple system feminism eval

Answer 25

According to Freedman, the ‘triple’ systems approach has the advantage that it does not seek one simple overarching explanation of women’s subordination. Rather, it treats capitalism, patriarchy and racism as linked but interacting systems, each making a difference. This recognition of complexity is to be welcomed. Nevertheless, Freedman points out that the triple approach actually widens rather than narrow the search for the basis of women’s disadvantage. It raises as many questions as it solves

Question 26

Weber dual labour market theory eval

Answer 26

• It stresses that the social organisation of work in Western societies is essentially patriarchal with men in the positions of power-making discrimination against women and their lower status appear ‘natural’.
• It undermines the popular assumption that better qualifications and increased ambition for women would automatically dismantle gender divisions in employment. Women with the same qualifications as men will continue to be disadvantaged as long as these two sectors are allowed to exist and are underpinned with patriarchal assumptions about the role of women.

Question 27

Gender intro

Answer 27

The broad picture of Gender inequality is that women are disadvantaged compared to men. It was the emergence of the women’s movement in the 1960s and 1970s which demonstrated the importance of gender divisions in society and it highlighted certain conflicts of interests between men and women. For example, some activists argued that Britain was a patriarchal society in which men dominated and exploited women.