45) Potassium Balance Flashcards
Where are the potassium ions found within the body?
- They are either found intracellularly (in cells) or extracellularly (outside of cells)
- A vast majority of K+ is found intracellularly
- Some cells have higher [K+] than others
How are K+ balanced between the two stores?
- There is an internal balance between intracellular and extracellular K+ which is under the control of factors such as insulin, adrenaline, pH or aldosterone
- There is an external balance between intracellular and extracellular K+ which consists of a balance between the input and output of K+
How can we influence the amount of K+ in the body?
- We take in K+ through our diet
- We give out K+ through urine, stools (faeces) and sweat
What are the different regulation of K+?
- Acute/short term: Distribution of K+ between intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments (i.e. the internal K+ balance)
- Chronic/long term: Achieved by adjusting K+ excretion and absorption (i.e. the output part of the external K+ balance)
What is the function of K+?
- It determines the intracellular fluid osmolality which impacts the volume of the cell
- It determines the resting membrane potential which is very important for the functioning of excitable cells (those that deal with electrophysiology, e.g. heart muscle cells and neurones)
- It affects vascular resistance and blood flow
How is the difference in intracellular and extracellular K+ concentrations maintained?
- This is done mainly through the Na+/K+ ATPase (Na+/K+ pump)
- The pump utilises the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate to pull K+ into the cell and expel Na+ from the cell
- This is the reason where this is a high [K+] located intracellularly and only a tiny amount is found in extracellular fluid (ECF)
How is a slight change in plasma [K+] dealt with when regulating K+ distribution?
- When there is slight increase in plasma [K+] (e.g. after a meal), the extra K+ is shifted into the Intracellular Fluid (ICF) compartment
- The change in balance is regulated and controlled by hormones such as insulin, adrenaline, aldosterone and blood pH changes
What are deficiencies in K+ concentration called?
- Hyperkalaemia: When plasma [K+] is higher than normal
- Hypokalaemia: When plasma [K+] is lower than normal
What is the resting membrane potential?
- Membrane potentials are created when a plasma membrane acts as a barrier which creates an ionic gradient (i.e. a combination of chemical and electrical gradients)
- The resting potential difference is a ratio of the extracellular and intracellular [K+]
- The normal resting membrane potential is maintained by the dynamic balance between Na+ and K+ concentrations
Why are small changes in plasma [K+] dangerous?
- Small changes in plasma [K+] can cause the membrane potential in all excitable cells to be altered
- This has severe effects on cardiomyocyte membrane potential affecting their function.
- These changes also produce characteristic changes in ECG
What changes are seen in an ECG when a patient suffers from hyperkalaemia and hypokalaemia?
- Hypokalaemia: Decreased amplitude of T-wave, prolonged Q-U interval and prolonged P-wave
- Hyperkalaemia: Increased QRS complex, increased amplitude of T-wave and eventual loss of P-wave
What is the threshold potential?
- The membrane potential which a cell must surpass in order for the cell to fire an action potential
How are excitable cells affected by hypokalaemia and hyperkalaemia?
- In hypokalaemia the cells are more hyperpolarised. This means they have a more negative resting potential causing them to be less excitable
- In hyperkalaemia the cells are more depolarised. This means they have a more positive resting potential causing them to be more excitable
How is hypokalaemia caused?
- It is caused by extra-renal loss of K+ or by restricted intake. This can be due to:
- Extended use of diuretics without KCl compensation
- Hyperaldosteronism (increased secretion of aldosterone)
- Prolonged vomiting leading to increased Na+ loss causing increased aldosterone secretion and hence causing K+ to be excreted by the kidney
- Profuse diarrhoea
What does hypokalaemia cause?
- Decreased resting potential
- Decreased release of adrenaline, aldosterone and insulin
How is hyperkalaemia caused?
- Acute hyperkalaemia is normal during prolonged exercise
- It can be caused by disease states. This includes:
- Insufficient renal excretion
- Increased release from damaged body cells (e.g. during chemotherapy)
- Long-term use of potassium-sparing diuretics
- Addison’s disease
What can hyperkalaemia cause?
- It can be life threatening as it causes asystolic cardiac arrest
How is hyperkalaemia treated?
- Insulin and glucose infusion used to drive K+ into cells as insulin stimulates the Na+/K+ ATPase
- Other hormones (e.g. aldosterone and adrenaline) can also stimulate the Na+/K+ ATPase to increase K+ uptake into cells
How does the concentration of Na+ and K+ within the glomerular filtrate and plasma relate?
- The [Na+] and [K+] in the GF and plasma are equal
- This is because Na+ and K+ pass freely into the glomeruli
Describe the movement of the Na+ in the proximal convoluted tubule?
- In the proximal convoluted tubule majority of the Na+ are absorbed.
- The fraction of Na+ being absorbed stays the same no matter what however the amount be absorbed changes depend on the GFR
- Na+ enters the epithelial cell from the tubular lumen via a Na+/Glucose symporter
- Na+ also enters the epithelium cell from the tubular limen vai a Na+/H+ antiporter
- Na+ is transported out of the cell into the ECF and K+ is transported into the epithelial cell from the ECF via the Na+/K+ ATPase
Describe the movement of K+ in the proximal convoluted tubule
- A small amount of K+ is able to leak into the ECF from epithelial cells via pores
- As more substances are removed from the tubular lumen the K+ gets more concentrated
- This allows for passive diffusion of K+ (and other substances) through gap junctions in between the epithelial cells in the ECF. This diffusion is passive and paracellular
Describe the movement of K+ in the proximal convoluted tubule
- A small amount of K+ is able to leak into the ECF from epithelial cells via pores
- As more substances are removed from the tubular lumen the K+ gets more concentrated
- This allows for passive diffusion of K+ (and other substances) through gap junctions in between the epithelial cells in the ECF. This diffusion is passive and paracellular
Describe the movement of K+ in the proximal convoluted tubule
- A small amount of K+ is able to leak into the ECF from epithelial cells via pores
- As more substances are removed from the tubular lumen the K+ gets more concentrated
- This allows for passive diffusion of K+ (and other substances like Cl-) through gap junctions in between the epithelial cells in the ECF. This diffusion is passive and paracellular
- From here they are reabsorbed into the proximal convoluted tubule
Describe the movement of substances in/out of the loop of Henle.
- In the descending arm of the loop of Henle there is excretion of water from the Loop of Henle into the surrounding interstitial fluid
- In the ascending arm there is a three way transporter which transports Na+, Cl- and K+ into the cell
- There is a Na+/K= ATPase which drives Na+ out of the epithelial cell into interstitial fluid and drives K+ into the cell from the surroundings
- K+ can also be excreted via pores in the cell membrane
- Finally the cell is impermeable to water so cannot directly take it in