4.2.2 Biopsychology🧬 Flashcards
1
Q
what two parts is the nervous system broken down into
A
central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
2
Q
what is the nervous system
A
the nervous system is a body wide system of nerve cells that collects information from the world , processes this information then takes action by directing body organs and muscles via the transmission of electrochemical messages. It is broken down into two parts
3
Q
what is the central nervous system
A
the central nervous system is responsible for complex processing , CNS contains brain and spinal cord .
4
Q
what is the role of the brain in the central nervous system
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the brain is the centre of all conscious awareness e.g our cerebral cortex is the outer layer , it is highy developed and distinguishes our higher mental functions.
5
Q
what is the role of the spinal cord in the central nervous system
A
the spinal cord receives and transmits information , some reflex processing, spinal cord is an extension of the brain and is responsible for reflex actions.
6
Q
what is the peripheral nervous system
A
it contains a body wide network of messenger neurons , sensory neurons (afferent) To the CNS , and motor neurons (efferent) neurons away from the CNS. The peripheral nervous system contains two processes.
7
Q
what are the two parts in the peripheral nervous system
A
autonomic system and somatic nervous system
8
Q
what is the somatic nervous system
A
the somatic nervous system is a nervous system which controls voluntary movement e.g through skeletal muscles. It controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors. It is under CONSCIOUS control
9
Q
what are sensory receptors
A
sensory receptors are a structured that reacts to a physical stimulus in the environment
10
Q
what is the autonomic nervous system
A
nervous system which controls involuntary movement , it governs vital functions in the body e.g breathing and digestion . Controls actions of internal organs and groups , Involuntary system - NOT UNDER CONSCIOUS CONTROL.
It is broken down into two processes which work together to regulate internal environment
11
Q
what two parts is the autonomic nervous system broken down into
A
sympathetic and parasympathetic
12
Q
what is the sympathetic nervous system
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it’s part of the autonomic nervous system it increases bodily activities, Releases noradrenaline It activates during times of stress response (fight or flight).
13
Q
what is the parasympathetic nervous system
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it decreases bodily actuvities , releases or acetylcholine . Activates in rest . it’s role is to regulate body and return us to a normal resting state.
14
Q
what is homeostasis
A
regulation of internal environment. in regular conditions there is a balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems . This is a state or homeostasis
15
Q
what are the three types of neurons
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sensory neurons , motor neurons , relay neurons
16
Q
what is the function of a sensory neuron
A
they convert signals from the external environment into corresponding internal stimuli .They carry information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system.
17
Q
what are the features of a sensory neuron
A
short axons
long dendrites
cell body outside
has myelin sheath
18
Q
what is the function of a relay neuron
A
they connect neurons to the motor neurone or other relay neurons. They receive messages from the sensory neurons and pass messages to either other interconnecting neurons or to motor neurons
19
Q
what are the feature of a relay neuron
A
short axon
short dendrites
cell body inside neuron
no myelin sheath
20
Q
what is the function of motor neurons
A
they carry electrical impulses from the brain and spinal cord (CNS) to the organs and muscles in the body (PNS)
21
Q
what are the features of motor neurons
A
long axons
short dendrites
cell body inside the neuron
has myelin sheath
22
Q
what is synaptic transmission
A
synaptic transmission is the process by which one neuron communicates with another
23
Q
explain the process of synaptic transmission
A
1) nerve impulse travels down an axon (electrical transmission) as an electrical impulse.
2) once the nerve impulse reaches the presynaptic nerve terminal it must cross the gap between presynaptic neuron and post synaptic neuron.
3) at the end of the neuron (in the axon terminal) are synaptic vesicles which contain chemical messengers (neurotransmitters)
4) when the electrical impulse reaches these synaptic vesicles they fire the neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap.
5) the neurotransmitter then binds to receptor sites on the dendrite of the adjacent neuron. If successful the neurotransmitter it is taken up by the post synaptic neuron
24
Q
explain the process of electrical transmission
A
- when in a resting state the cells inside a neuron are negatively charged.
when a neuron is activated by an impulse the inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a short period of time causing an action potential to occur.
this creates an electrical impulse that travels doen the axon towards the edge of the neuron , this action potential is only created by excitatory neurons
25
what are excitatory neurontransmitters
excitatory neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline bind with receptors on a post synaptic neuron and cause them to leg in positive ions into the cell. By making the cell less negative it means that the neuron is more likely to fire and pass on the electrical impluse
26
what are inhibitory neurotransmitters
inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent an action potential being created , e.g serotonin . Inhibitory neurotransmitters bind to a post synaptic neuron allowing negative ions into the neuron , making it even more negative , which means the neuron is less likely to fire and pass on the electrical impulse.
27
what is localisation of function
the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours , processes or activities. It therefore follows that if an area of the brain becomes damaged through illness or injury, the function associated with that area area will also be effected
28
what are the 6 examples of localisation of function
```
motor area
somatosensory area
visual area
auditory area
broca’s area
wernickes area
```
29
what is the cerebral cortex
the brain is divided into two hemispheres, left and right, which is surrounded by the cerebral cortex which covers the inner parts of the brain . The correct is about 3mm thick.
30
what are the four lobes in the brain
frontal , parietal , occipital , temporal
31
what is the structure of lobes in the brain
32
briefly explain phineas gage in relation to localisation of function
Whilst working on the railroad in 1848 phineas gage had a metre length pole hurled through Gage’s left cheek passing behind his left eye and exiting his skull from the top of his head taking a proportion of his brain with it (most of his frontal lobe).
gage survived but the damage to his brain left a mask on his personality he went from being calm and reserved to somebody who was quick tempered and rude
This acts as landmark case which suggests the frontal lobe may be responsible for regulating mood
33
what are strength of localisation of function - brain scanning
-There is brain scanning evidence to support that functions are localised. Peterson et al used brain scans - showed wernickes area was active during a listening task , Broca’s area was active during a reading task. supports the idea different parts of the brain have different functions
34
what are strength of localisation of function - neurosurgical evidence
there is neurosurgical evidence to support that functions are localised . Dougherty reported 44 OCD patients who had undergone a cingulotomy. A post surgical follow up after 32 weeks showed 1/3 had a successful response to the surgery and 14% a partial repsonse. Success of procedures such as this suggest that symptoms and behaviours associated with serious mental disorders are localised.
35
what are strength +limitation of localisation of function - case study evidence
there is case study evidence . When the metal pole wws hurled through his left cheek and damaged his frontal lobe he survived but his personality changed from calm and reserved to quick tempered and rude . This suggests personality and temperament is localised within the frontal lobe. However it is a case study and lacks generalisability .
36
what are limitation of localisation of function - contrasting evidence
there is evidence to suggest some higher functions are distributed in a more holistic way in the brain. Lashley removed areas of the cortex (10%-50%) in rats that were learning a maze. No area was proven to be more important than any other in terms of the rats ability to learn the maze . This process of learning appeared to require every part of the cortex not a certain area . This suggests learning is too complex to be localised it involves the whole brain.
However this study uses rats and it may lack generaliseability
37
what are limitation of localisation of function - functional recovery
functional recovery shows that localisation of function can change . when the brain is damaged through illness or accident the rest of the brain appears able to reorganise itself in an attempt to recover the lost function. For example there is a girl who loves with only half a brain . Lashley described this as law of equipotentiality . This supports that the holistic view of functioning rather than the localisation view. However this is a case study and it lacks generalisability.
38
what is hemispheric lateralisation
hemispheric lateralisation is the idea that some mental processes in the brain are mainly specialised to the left or right hemisphere. this means that the two halves of the brain are functionally different. It is researched by split brain patients
Certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other. e.g language mainly controlled by left and facial recognition mainly controlled by right
39
what does contralateral mean
the opposite side of the body to the brain hemisphere that controls it.
40
what is the corpus callosum
a broad band of fibres that joins the two hemispheres of the brain, allows communication to occur.
41
what is split brain research and when are they used
a series of studies which began in the 1960s involving epileptic patients who had experienced a surgical separation of hemispheres of the brain. This allowed researcher to investigate the extent to which brain function is lateralised.
42
what are the key points to note for visual fields and hemispheres
- the information from the left visual field is processed by the right hemisphere
- information from the right visual field is processed by the left hemisphere
- language is lateralised to the left hemisphere
- the right hand side of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere
- left hand side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere
- the cutting of the corpus callosum means that information cannot be passed between the hemispheres
43
what are the strengths of lateralisation
hemispheric lateralisation is thought to increase neural processing capacity , as one hemisphere engages in one task the other hemisphere can engage in another.
evidence from split brain research show that language and facial recognition are lateralised to the right and left hemisphere respectively (sperry et al)
lateralisation changes with age , lateralised. patterns found younger individuals change to bilateral patterns in older adults . may compensate for age related declines in functioning, shoes there was lateralisation.
44
what happens in split brain research
the corpus callosum has been cut meaning that the two halves cannot talk to eachother wnd operate independently.
The individual focuses on a central dot which means that information can be presented to either the left or right visual field. This means that is only processed by one hemisphere
45
what is the left hemisphere responsible for
speech and language
46
what is the right hemisphere responsible for
it is specialised in visual spatial processing and facial recognition
47
what were the four studies conducted by sperry for split brain research
describing what you see
recognition by touch
composite words
recognising faces
48
outline study and findings of sperry’s split brain research - describe what you see
left hemisphere responsible for speech and language , if an image is shown to right visual field the patient could easily describe what is seen zx this is because the information is processed in the left hemisphere which has language centres.
if it is presented to the left visual field they cannot , this is due to the lack of language centres in the right hemisphere
if the patient draws the image presented to the left visual field they are then able to say the word.
The inability to describe information presented to the left visual field is because there is no language processing in the right hemisphere, the inability to send messages between the hemispheres means that the info cannot be verbalised
49
outline study and findings of sperry’s split brain research - recognition by touch
split brain patients are unable to say what has been shown to the left visual field as this information is processed in the right hemisphere which has no language.
however using their left hand which is controlled by the right hemisphere they can pick out a matching object to the word shown.
this demonstrates that although they cannot say that they have seen anything they are able to identify the word that was shown in their left visual field in another way
50
give a strength or split brain research into hemispheric lateralisation - evidence
large amount of evidence to demonstrate lateralised brain functions
e..g sperrys pioneering work into split brain phenomenon has produced an impressive amount of research findings which mainly show left hemisphere is geared towards analytical and verbal tasks whereas the right is more adept at spatial tasks and music.
it is thought the right hemisphere contributes to emotional and holistic content to language
this has led to w keg distribution in our understanding of brain processes e.g the left is the analyser whereas the right is the sympathiser.
51
give a strength or split brain research into hemispheric lateralisation - methodology
highly standardised methodology and procedures used in split brain patient experiments.
patients given a fixation point to stare at whole one eye wws blindfolded . the image would be flawed up for 1/10 of a second . meaning that the image couldn’t possibly spread across both visual fields.
this allowed sperry to vary aspects of the basics procedure and ensure only one hemisphere wws receiving info at a time , hugh control of variables mean it’s a very useful procedure
52
give a limitation of split brain research into hemispheric lateralisation - theoretical/philosophical debate
sperry work has prompted theoretical debate , e.g pucetti has suggested that the two hemispheres are so functionally diffreng that they represent a form of duality in the brain we are all two minds , this is emphasised in split brain patients, however some researcher argue that the the two hemispheres form a highly integrated system and that both are involved in every day tasks ( they do not work in isolation).
53
give a limitation or split brain research into hemispheric lateralisation - generalisability
only 11 patients took in all variations of basic procedure , all had a history of epileptic seizures .
this may havw caused unique changes to the brain that may have influenced the findings , woke participants also experienced more disconnection than othere through surgery.
control group of 11 people had no history of epilepsy which may have been inappropriate . Limiting the extent to which findings can be generalised to normal brains , reducing the validity of the conclusions.
54
give a strength or split brain research into hemispheric lateralisation - overstated
although verbal and non verbal modern labels can sometimes be applied to summarise the difference between the hemispheres , modern neuroscientists would contend that the actual distinction is less clear cut and messier.
in the normal brain the hemispheres are in constant communication and much behaviour typically associated with one hemisphere can be performed by the other when the situation requires it
Research into plasticity and functional recovery demonstrates that lateralisation is not always clear or permanent
55
what is plasticity
plasticity (neuroplasticity/cortical remapping) describes the brains tendency to change and adapt (functionally and physically). the brain adapts to create new neural pathways and alter existing ones to adapt to new experiences a result of new learning.
56
explain the role of life experience in plasticity and functional recovery
as we gain new experiences and frequently use our neural pathways there can be strengthening or reinforcement of these neurons . neural pathways that are not often used are pruned and the cells die . This shows the brain is constantly adapting to experience.
with age there is a general decline in the plasticity of the brain associated with a decline in cognitive functioning.practicing skills has been shown to help reduce the redline within milder people as there grey matter increases. however once peruse ceases the brain changes are reversed , this demonstrates plasticity in the brain
57
what are the factors effecting functional recovery
how much people want to recover
how tired people are
how stressed peiole are
how much alcohol/drugs people are consuming
age- younger individuals recover quicker
gender - women recover quicker
58
describe procedure and findings of maguires study into plasticity and functional recovery
aim- to examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation
procedure-Maguire are used structural MRI scans of male London taxi drivers to investigate the posterior hippocampus which is the part of the brain associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills. he also used MRIs on control groups a comparison
findings-he discovered that taxi drivers had increased grey matter in the right and left hippocampus. The longer they had been in the job the more pronounced the structural difference was. This is an example of plasticity in thr brain 
59
describe procedure and findings of kuhn’a study into plasticity and functional recovery
aim-to investigate the differences in adolescences cortical thickness who plays video. games in comparison to those who do not.
procedure-Using MRI scans a control group as compare to video game group you have to play Super Mario for at least 30 minutes a day for two months.
findings-He found there was a significant increase in the grey matter are numerous brain areas for the video group these brain areas were associated with spatial navigation ,strategic planning? working memory and motor performance this demonstrates plasticity in the brain
60
what is functional recovery
 functional recovery refers to the recovery of abilities and mental processes that have been compromised as a result of brain injury or disease it involves moving a brain function from the damaged area of the brain to an undamaged area.The brain learns to compensate for the area that has lost function. e.g girl with half a brain.
61
how fast is functional recovery
the initial process can occur quickly (spontaneous recovery) and then slow after several weeks or months . at this point the individual may require rehabilitation therapy to further their recovery.
62
how does functional recovery occur
The brain rewired and re-organise itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage.
secondary neural pathways that would not typically be able to carry out certain functions or activated or undergo neuronal on masking to enable functioning to continue.
this process is supported by a number of structural changes in the brain e.g axonal sprouting , recruitment of homologous areas on the opposite side of the brain
63
give limitation of plasticity and functional recovery - neurorehabilitation
understanding of processes involved in plasticity has contributed to the field of neurorehabilitation.
From previous research we know following illness or injury to the brain spontaneous recovery tends to slow down after a number of weeks so forms of physical therapy may be required to maintain improvements and functions.This shows that although the brain may have the capacity to fix it self to a point this process requires further intervention if it is to be completely successful
64
give a strength of plasticity and functional recovery - supporting evidence
supporting research from kuhn and maguire
65
give a limitation of plasticity and functional recovery - no previous record
usually there is no record of functioning prior to trauma which means there is no baseline to compare against . difficult to know how much recovery has occurred.
66
give a limitation of plasticity and functional recovery- generalisability
ability of the brain to recover varies between individuals according to the extent of damage , location and the individual differences such as age and gender , generalisations are therefore difficult
67
what are the four ways of studying the brain
FMRI
EEG
ERP
POST MORTEM
68
what is functional magnetic imaging (FMRI)
a technique used for measuring brain activity while a person performs a task. it works by detecting blood oxygenation and blood flow that indicate increased neural activity in particular parts of the brain
69
what is electroencephalogram (EEG)
it measures electrical activity in the brain. electrodes are placed on the scalp , detect small electrical charged from activity of brain cells . signals graphed over time . Four types of EEG patterns , basic , alpha waves , beta waves , delta waves and theta waves
70
what is event related potentials (ERPs)
they record changes in electrical activity using electrodes attached to the scalp but used a specific stimulus (sensory or motor) to see where the activity is .
71
what are post mortem examinations
ways of examining the brains of people who have shown particular psychological abnormalities prior to their death , in order to establish the possible neurological cause for this behaviour.
72
evaluate strengths of FMRI
strengths-
it is non invasive , if does not involve radiation or sticking instruments directly into the brain.
It is virtually risk free
FMRI have good spatial resolution- greater spatial resolution allows for psychologists to discriminate between different brain regions with greater accuracy.
73
evaluate limitations of FMRI
poor temporal resolution (the accuracy of scanner in relation to time)
causation- FMRI scans do not provide a direct measure of neural activity they simply measure changes in blood flow therefore it’s impossible to infer causation at a neutral level
74
evaluate strengths of EEG
it is non invasive
much cheaper technique than FMRI for example
good temporal resolution , takes reading every millisecond. can record brain activity in real time as opposed to looking at a passive brain
75
evaluate limitations of EEG’s
poor spatial resolution - only detect the activity in smaller regions of the brain
electrical activity is often detected in several areas of the brain simultaneously making it hard for researchers to draw accurate conclusions
76
evaluate strengths of ERP’s
non invasive
good temporal resolution
much cheaper then FMRI
77
evaluate limitations of ERP’s
poor spatial resolution -Greater spatial resolution allows psychologists to discriminate between different brain regions with greater accuracy. ERPs only detect the activity in superficial regions of the brain. Consequently, EEGs and ERPs are unable to provide information on what is happening in the deeper regions of the brain (such as the hypothalamus),
ERP’s enable the determination of how processing is effected by specific experimental manipulation - makes it more experimentally robust
78
evaluate the limitationss of post mortem examinations
causation - the deficit of a patient displays in w lifetime may not be linked to the deficits in the brain
many extraneous variables effect results /conclusions of post mortem examinations
79
evaluate the limitations of Post mortem examinations
provides detailed examinations of the autonomic and neurochemical aspects of the brain that is not possible with other scanning techniques
ethical issues in relation to informed consent
80
what is the motor area
localised area of the brain in the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement
81
what is somatosesnsory area
a localised area in the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch
82
what is the visual area
a localised part of the occipital lobe that processes visual information
83
what is the auditory area
a localised area located in the temporal lobe which is concerened with the analysis of speech based information
84
what is brocas area
a localised area in the frontal lobe of the brain in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production
85
what is wernickes area
a localised area in the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension
