4.1.3 attachment 🐒 ADVANCED INFO Flashcards
define attachment
attachment is a close two way emotional bond between two individuals in which each sees the other as essential for emotional security.
what are the three attachment behaviours
proximity
seperation distress
secure-base behaviours
define proximity as an attachment behaviour
proximity - how close somebody is to who they are attached to. People try to stay physically close to whom they are attached to.
define seperation distress as an attachment behaviour
seperation distress- people are distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence.
define secure base behaviours as an attachment behaviour
secure base behaviours- evene when we are independent of our attchment figures we tend to make regular contact-based behaviour when they regularly return to their attachment figure while playing.
what are the two animal studies of attachment
Lorenz study on imprinting
Harlow study on contact comfort
outline the procedure of Lorenz animal study of attachment - imprinting
Divided a clutch of gosling eggs into two groups.
Group one- hatched with natural mother.
Group two- placed in an incubator and first moving object they saw was Lorenz.
outline the results of Lorenz animal study of attachment- imprinting
group 1 followed the mother around , group 2 followed lorenz around even when the two groups were mixed together. they had imprinted.
define imprinting
imprinting is when bird species that are mobile from birth attach to the first moving object they see for safety .
what did lorenz identify about a critical period for imprinting
lorenz identified a critical period in which imprinting needs to take place , this can vary between species. if imprinting does not occur within that time lorenz found that chicks did not attach to a mother figure.
outlin one strength of lorenz research into animal study’s of attachment- influential in the development of pyschology
findings have been highly influential within the field of developmental psychology.
Lorenz research suggests imprinting is irriversible and is under biological control and it happens under a specific time frame.
lead developmental psychologists (such as Bowlby) to develop well recognised theories of attachment suggesting the attachment formation takes place during a critical period and is a biological process
outline one limitation of lorenz research into animal study’s of attachment - generalisability?
lorenz can be criticised for extrapolation.
Lorenz conducted his study on imprinting on animals
humans and animals are physiological different. The way a human infant develops an attachment with their primary caregiver could be different to the way a goose forms an attachment with their primary caregiver, therefore the findings cannot be generalised.
outline one strength/limitation of lorenz research into animal studys of attachment - other research
guiton replicated lorenz research , chicks exposed to a yellow rubber glove imprinted on them - supports imprinting . as the chicks were older they tried to mate with the rubber gloves however when they were exposed to their own species again this behaviour stopped , questions how flexible imprinting is, not as permanent as lorenz suggests?
outline the procedure of harlows animal study into attachment - contact comfort
16 baby monkeys reared with two wire mothers.
in one condition - milk dispensed from plain wire mother
in another condition - milk dispensed from cloth covered mother
he measured how long they clung to the mother for and frightened them to see which mother they ran to for comfort
outline the results of harlows animal study into attachment - contact comfort.
In both conditions, baby monkeys cuddled the soft ‘mother’ in preference to the wire ‘mother’ and sought comfort from the cloth ’mother’ when frightened.
This showed that ‘contact comfort’ was more important than food in attachment.
what did harlow find about the monkeys involved in his research when he followed them into adulthood
Followed the monkeys who had been deprived of a real mother in childhood to adulthood to assess the effects of maternal deprivation.
These monkeys were the most dysfunctional:
Highly aggressive
Less sociable,
Unskilled parents- neglected/ killed young.
outline one limitation of harlow’s research into animal studies of attachment - ethical issues / generalisability?
Ethical implications- lasting emotional harm to monkeys involved as seen when they followed the monkeys into adulthood.
the rhesus monkeys from the study showed great distress in social situations and were unable to communicate with other monkeys. In addition, when the monkeys from the study had their own children many were said to neglect their offspring
Harlow’s study can be seen to be in breach of the BPS guidelines (it fails to protect the monkeys from harm). Furthermore, this study doesn’t tell us anything about the formation of human attachments (monkeys and humans are physiologically different). - lack of generalizability causes it to be more unethical.
outline one strength of harlow’s research into animal studies of attachment - practical value and theoretical value ,
Harlow’s research had theoretical value- showed attachment does not develop due to feeding (learning theory) which was a common theory at the time.
Harlow’s research had practical value- showed social workers the impact of neglect and abuse – showed how to care for animals in captivity.
outline one strength of harlows research into animal studies of attachment - lab setting
it was conducted in a controlled, laboratory setting.
Harlow was able to control potential extraneous variables such as the monkeys being taken away from their mothers straight after birth, the baby monkeys not being exposed to any love or attention from their biological mothers.
control of variables meant that he was able measure what he set out to do - factors affacting attachment
high internal validity , cause and effect relationship can be established
however lab setting could lack ecological validity - the artifical setting could affect monkeys behaviour
what are the two explanationS of attachment
social learning theory
and bowlbys montropic/evolutionary theory
outline bowlbys monotropic/evolutionary theory of attachment
bowlbys monotropic theory involves four main principles , infants evolved to show attachment behaviours e.g social releasers . they use these to develop one unique attachment with a particular individual. this attachment must be formed by 2.5 years or developmental issues occur. the internal working model is used to inform future relationships.
what are the four main principles of bowlbys monotropic theory that we must know .
evolution
monotropy
internal working model
critical period
explain evolution as a principle of bowlbys monotropic theory
bowlby argued that infants evolved a need to attach to caregivers.
through natural selection infants developed attachment behaviours called social releasers e.g crying and smiling
social releasers help maintain ad attract attention from the caregiver
adult caregivers respond to social releasers through displays of sensitive responsiveness
explain monotropy as a principle of bowlbys monotropic theory
bowlbys argued that althougfh attachment behaviours such as social releasers are shown indiscriminately (to anyone) at first ,
infants then form one main attachment e.g the mother
bowlby acknowledges that we do form other attachments growing up
however THE FIRST ATTACHMENT IS UNIQUE AND THE STRONGEST
explain critical period as a principle of bowlbys montropic theory
bowlby argued that the first attachment has to be made within the first 2.5 years ,
if the attachment is formed or is damaged/broken it can have severe effects on a childs emotional and social development
explain internal working model as a principle of bowlbys monotropic theory
bowlby claims our first attachment forms a template for how we form expactations for future adult relationships .
it is a working model because it develops as attachment develops
if a child has strong monotropic relationship-efefctive adult relationships
if a child has a negative monotropic experience -antisocial behaviours
outline one limitation of bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- mixed support for montropy
schaffer and emersons 1964 study found that most babies did attach to one person first , however they also found that a significant minority appeared to form multiple attachments at the same time.
outline one strength of bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment- supporting studies - harlow
harlows rhesus monkeys study supports his theory , the monkeys attached to a comforting caregiver highlighting the importance of sensitive responsiveness underlies attachment.monotropy places emphasis on the importance of a close relationship, the monkeys in the study neglected their offspring because they didnt experience a proper caregiver and had a faulty internal working model
however its an animal study how far can we generalise it
outline one strength of bowlbys monotropic theory of attachment - internal working model supported
bailey et al assesed 99 mothers with one year old babies by interviewing mothers and observing children, found mothers who reported poor attachments to their own parents had children that were more likely to have poor attachments . supports the internal working model and predicts patterns of attachment.
one limitation of bowlbys theory -define temperament in the context of attachment and why might it be a problem for bowlbys theory of attchment
temperament is the childs genetically influenced personality
it may be a problem for bowlby as it provides a credible alternative explanation. e.g shows ehy babys may show seperation anxiety more than others. however it cannot explain importance of responding to early interactions (reciprocity) in developing good quality attachments
explain learning theory of attachment
learning theory of attachment consists of two kinds of conditioning , operant and classical. The theory suggest that infants learn to become attached to their caregivers. Sometimes known as cupboard love theory.
explain how classical conditioning plays a role in learning theory of attachment.
learning by association
Food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of pleasure.
During the infant’s early weeks the mother (NS) becomes associated with food because they are present when the infant is fed.
The NS (mother) becomes a CS which produces a CR of pleasure. Learning theorists called this newly formed stimulus-response ‘cupboard love’.
explain how operant conditioning plays a role in learning theory of attachment
learning by reinforcement
Crying leads to a response from the caregiver e.g. feeding.
As long as the caregiver provides the correct response for the child then the behaviour is reinforced.
The baby then directs crying for comfort towards the caregiver who responds with comforting ‘social suppressor’ behaviour.
The reinforcement is a two-way process. The caregiver is negatively reinforced because the crying stops- escaping something unpleasant is reinforced
explain how drive reduction theory plays a role in forming an attachment.
an instinctive need that causes behaviour to change
Hunger is a primary drive- it is an innate and biological motivator; we are motivated to eat to remove the drive.
As caregivers provides food the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them.
Attachment is thus a secondary drive learned by an association between caregiver and satisfaction of primary drive.
outline one limitation of the learning theory of attachment - counteracting studies
strong evidence against learning theory- schaffer and emerson found feeding may not play a huge role as learning theory suggests
found the first attachments formed by 39% of babies was not to the person who carried out physical caree.g feeding
.Attachments were more likely to be formed to those individuals who are sensitive and rewarding to the baby and who play with the infant.
responsiveness might be more important.
outline one limitation of the learning theory of attachment - animal studies going against it
harlows study into rhesus monkeys found comfort was more important than feeding .
outline one limitation of the learning theory of attachment- over simplistic
learning theory of attachment ignores other factors associated with attachment e.g reciprocity. studies found best quality attachments are with sensitive carers that pick up on infants signals .
outine one strength of the learning theory of attachment - could still explain behaviour
SLT could explain attachment- parents model attachment behaviour.
Some elements of conditioning could still be involved- association could be between attachment figure and comfort.
outline the procedure of ainsworths strange situation
to classify different attachment types , mum and baby engaged in 8 episodes through the study whilst being observed and the infants behaviour was recorded every 15 seconds.
Eight episodes, designed to highlight key behaviours: proximity seeking, exploration and secure base behaviour, stranger anxiety, separation on anxiety and response to reunion.
Ainsworth combined data from several studies and found three main attachment types
what were the three main attachment types found in ainsworths strange situation
Type A- insecure avoidant(20-25% of brittish toddlers)
Type B - secure (60-75% of brittish toddlers)
Type C - insecure resistant (3% of brittish toddlers)
what characteristics are shown by Type A insecure avoidant toddlers
- Happy to explore the environment with or without caregiver.
- Show little response to separation.
- Show little or no social interaction and intimacy with others.
what characteristics are shown by Type B secure toddlers
- Use caregivers as a secure base to explore the environment.
- Not likely to cry if their caregiver leaves.
- Show some distress when left with a stranger.
- When feeling anxious they are easily soothed by their caregivers.
what characteristics are shown by Type C insecure resistant toddlers
- Seek & resist social interaction with others.
- High levels of separation anxiety & stranger anxiety.
- When reunited with their caregivers they show conflicting behaviours and resist being picked up.
outline one strength of ainsworths strange situation-Replicable/ high inter-observer reliability
the research is highly operationalised
observers have a clear view of how a securely attached infant should behave, due to the 4 specific criteria that Ainsworth used
it is also replicable so its reliability can be checked.
outline one limitation of ainsworths strange situation-Low Population Validity/culturally bias
major methodological criticism of Ainsworth’s research is that the sample was restricted to 100 middle class Americans & their infants, so it is unlikely that findings would be representative of the wider population.
SS was designed by an American according to observations of US children.criteria used to classify infants are based on US values, relating to child-parent behaviour. It could be argued that this is Eurocentric, so observations of non-Americans will judged according to American standards.
outline one limitation of ainsworth strange situation- strict control
the strict controls used for the observations might have increased the likelihood of mums showing demand characteristics , thus causing a lack of mundane realism
outline one limitation of ainsworth strange situation - an extra attachment type ?
Main & Solomon (1986) analysed over 2000 SS videotapes to find a fourth type- “insecure-disorganised” (type D)- children are strongly attached and then avoidant. this could show the original study may be lacking in validity.
outline Ijzendoorn and Kroonernberg’s study into cultural variations of attachment
They completed a meta analysis of 32 different studies of the strange situation taht were conducted across 8 countries , to look at the proportions of each attachment type across a range of countries
outline the results of Ijzendoorn and kroonernbergs study into cultural variations of attachment
Secure attachment was the most common in every country.
Insecure-avoidant attachment was the next most common in every country except Israel and Japan, which are two collectivist cultures.
Variation within cultures, they found that this was 1.5 times higher than the variation between cultures.
secure being the most common-suggests attachment is innate
outline one strength/limitation of kroonernberg and Ijzendoorns study into cultural variations of attachment- meta analysis good or bad?
They used a meta analysis
strength-analysed over 2000 babies in their study- reduces impact of participant variables. was quicker to get data , larger sample sizes are more generalisable .
limitation- some studies might be outdated , and some of the data may not be good quality as you werent there to ensure it.
outline one limitation of kroonernberg and IJzendoorns study into cultural variations of attachment - biasing data towards a western perspective
18 of the 32 different studies were done in the usa , only one was done in china , biasing the data towards a western perspective.
outline one limitation of kroonernberg and IJzendoorns study into cultural variations of attachment - role of the media
Ijzedoorn and kroonernberg suggested that cultural similarities might be explained by the media , it presents ideas about parenting - children all over the world may be exposed to similar parenting as a result of the media.
this could go against bowlbys theory of secure attachment being innate , could just be because of projection from the media.
why has the strange situation been criticised for being ethnocentric
the SSp has been accused of being an imposed etic, which is the application of ideas and concepts devloped in one culture to measure and explain behaviour in another culture.
different cultures value different kinds of behaviour therefore child rearing practices will reflect this , a childs behaviour in the strange situation is a reflection of culture more than attachment
define bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
maternal deprivation is the emotional and intellectual consequences of seperation between his/her mother or substitute mother. Bowlby proposed that continuous care from a mother is essential for normal psychological development and that prolonged seperation from this adult causes serious damage to emotional and intellectual development.
name four consequences of maternal deprivation
An inability to form attachments in the future (internal working model)
Affectionless psychopathy (inability to feel remorse)
Delinquency (behavioural problems in adolescence)
Problems with Cognitive Development-Intellectual development- Goldfarb (1947) found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions compared to those fostered with more emotional care.
outline what bowlby believes about maternal deprivation
Proposed that prolonged emotional deprivation would have long-term consequences on emotional development.
Infants and children need a ‘warm, intimate and continuous relationship with a mother (or mother-substitute)’ for normal mental health.
Early childhood separation will only have an effect if it takes place during the critical period of development – first 30 months.
Potential damage can be avoided if suitable emotional care is provided by a mother-substitute.
outline bowlbys study into maternal deprivation-44 juvenile thieves
aim- to investigate whether teh causes of affectionless psychopathy could be linked to maternal deprivation
88 children-All of the children were emotionally maladjusted.
44 of the children were ‘thieves’ and the other 44 children used were a control group.
14 of the 44 ‘thieves’ showed little sign of affection, shame or sense of responsibility – a group he called’ affectionless psychopaths’.
Found that 12 out of 14 (86%) affectionless psychopaths experienced frequent early separation from their mothers, in comparison to just 17% of the other thieves.
Only 2 of the 44 in the control group had experienced long term separation.
These findings suggest that early childhood separations are linked to affectionless psychopathy.
what is the difference between privation and deprivation
privation is the failiure to form any attachment in the first place , whereas deprivation is the loss of an attachment after it has been formed .
outline one limitation of bowlbys research into maternal deprivation- clarity between privation/deprivation
Rutter drew a distinction between privation and deprivation.
Rutter claimed that severe long term damage bowlby associated with deprivation is more likely to be as a result of privation. IN bowlbys study he didnt distinguish between privation and deprivation.
was bowlby acc measuring what he set out to do ? lack oc clarity reduces the internal valdity of the findings
outline one limitation of bowlbys research into maternal deprivation- counteracting research against critical period
Koluchova found a case of twin boys who were isolated from the age of 18 months until they were 7 they were locked in a cupboard. After they were looked after two loving adults and appeared to make a full recovery.
this goes against bowlbys idea that the first 30 months of your life are critical and psychological damagae as a result of deprivation is inevitable if no attachment is formed.
IT coukd show the critical period may be more of a sensitive period , may increase the chance of psychological damage but doesnt guarantee it.
outline one strength of bowlbys research into maternal deprivation- real world application
RWA- Bowlby’s work led to major changes for children cared for in Hospitals e.g. parents now encouraged to visit.
define institutionalisation
a term for the effects of living in an institutionalised set
outline the procedure ruttersenglish and romanian orphan study (ERA STUDY) into institutionalisation
Rutter and colleagues followed 165 romanian orphans adopted in britain to see to what extent they could make up for poor early experience in institutions.
Physical, cognitive and social development were examined using interviews with parents and teachers at age 4, 6, 11 and 15.
Progress compared with 52 British children who were adopted before they were six months old.
outline the results rutters english and romanian orphan study (ERA STUDY) into institutionalisationU
By the age of four, some of the Romanian children had caught up with the British children.
However, those adopted after six months showed significant deficits and signs of disinhibited attachment, highlighting the long-term consequences of institutionalisation.
Mean IQ of those adopted before 6 months was 102, compared to 86 for those adopted between 6 months and 2 years.
Differences remained at 16 years old
outline one strength of rutters ERA study into institutionalisation- real life application
studying the romanian orphans has enhanced understanding of the effects of institutionalisation
e.g children homes now avoid large numbers of caregivers for each child to avoid disinhibited attachment and help children develop normal attachments
this shows it has been valuable in practical terms
summarise the findings about attachment in Rutters ERA study
disinhibited attachment was strongly associated with institutional rearing when children were adopted after 6 months.
what are symptoms of disinhibited attachment
attention seeking
clingyness
social behaviour directed indiscriminately towards all adults , both familiar and unfamiliar
outline one strenth into Rutters ERA study into institutionalisation- few extraneous variables
it has fewer extraneous variables than other orphan studies .
in other studies the children involved experienced trauma and neglect and other cofounding variables.
in the romanian orphan study they were able to study institutionalisation without the confounding variables , therefore there is increased internal validity.
outline one limitation into Rutters ERA study into institutionalisation- lack of generalisability
Lack Of Generalisability-
The Romanian Orphanages were not typical of other types of Institutionalized care. The children were raised in extreme conditions where they were given poor care and very low levels of intellectual stimulation
. The conditions were so bad that we must ask whether the results can be applied to any other effects caused by any sort of Institutionalization.
outline one limitation into Rutters ERA study into institutionalisation- lack of clarity over long term effects
The long-term effects aren’t clear-ERA only followed children to age 15.
outline what research has found about the effects of institutionalisation
disinhibited attachment is strongly assosciated with institutional rearing if not adopted before 6 months
in rutters study most children showed signs of mental retardation however most of the children adopted before 6 months caught up to the control grouo by the age of 4
how do early attachments influence later relationships according to the internal working model
according to bowlby’s internal working model it is a Mental representation we carry with us of our attachment to our primary caregiver. They affect future relationships because they carry perception of what relationships are like.
how do the different attachment types influence later childhood
Securely attached children form the best quality friendships.
Insecure children have friendship difficulties.
Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) -secure children were unlikely be involved in bullying,
insecure-avoidant were most likely to be victims of bulling and
insecure-resistant were most likely to be bullies.
outline Hazan and shaver’s study into investigae if the primary attachment relationship with parents is reflected in adult relationships.
620 people measured a love quiz published in a local newspaper
the questionaire was designed to establish the type of attachment people had with their parents and the types of relationships as adults
A positive correlation was found between attachment type and love experiences.
Securely attached adults described their love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting.
The avoidant respondents tended to reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy.
how do early attachment types influence later parenting types
People base their parenting style on their internal working model so attachment type tends to be passed through generations of a family.
outline one limitation of the influence of early attachment on later relationships- validity issues
most studies rely on self report techniques e.g hazen and shavers studies questionaires. relies on participantss being honest and having realistic views. it also causes problems retrospectively - looking back at ur own childhood attachment relies on accurate recollections
outline one limitation of the influence of early attachment on later relationships - association is not the same as causation
there are alternative explanations for teh continuity that often exists between infants ans later relationships , environmental factors may have a direct effect on future relationships or attachment. e.g a childs temperment and parenting style could have a effect . LImitation as it goes against bowlbys idea that an internal working model caused these outcomes.
outline one limitation of the influence of early attachmenr on later relationships - theoretical problems related to internal working model
internal working models are unconscious , we are not directlly aware of their influence on us. when participants self report they are relying on their conscious understanding of those relationships.
outline one strength of hazan and shavers study into early attachmemts on adult relationships- longitudinal support
P = Longitudinal studies support Hazan and Shaver. E = Simpson et al (2007) assessed infant attachment after one year and found that those securely attached as infants were rated as having higher social confidence and more emotionally attached to their partner in early adulthood. E = Therefore, this is a strength because it supports the view that attachment type predicts relationships in adult life.
