4/5 Cognitive Biases & Individual Differences

Question 1

Confirmation Trap

Answer 1

gathering additional facts or support to influence your choice of which facts to gather and where to look. Looking for information that will confirm our preferred answer or choice and to neglect to search for evidence that might prove us wrong

Question 2

2 facts about fact gathering

Answer 2

we are over confident and confirmation trap

Question 3

how to solve fact gathering

Answer 3

think of ways you could be wrong

Question 4

4 ways of thinking about consequences

Answer 4

1. reduce the number of consequences
2. self vs. others
3. consequences as risks
4. Consequences over time: Escalation of Commitment

Question 5

Illusion of Optimism

Answer 5

overestimating the likelihood of good future events and underestimating bad future events

Question 6

Illusion of Control

Answer 6

the general belief that we are in charge of what happens, and we can control events. We also think bad things are less likely to happen

Question 7

Illusion of Superiority

Answer 7

people tend to think of themselves as more ethical, fair, honest than most people

Question 8

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Answer 8

a new research tool that can help understand the potential (often negative) role of the unconscious in a certain type of ethical thinking.

Question 9

Ethical Judgement

Answer 9

making a decision about what is the right think to do.

Question 10

Individual Differences

Answer 10

1. Ethical Decision-Making Style
2. Locus of Control
3. Cognitive Moral Development
4. Machiavellians
5. Moral Disengagement

Question 11

Idealism

Answer 11

person’s concern for the welfare of others

Question 12

Realism

Answer 12

the person’s emphasis on ethical principles dependent on the situation rather than being a applicable to all situations.

Question 13

Kholberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory

Answer 13

a cognitive development theory that focuses primarily on how people think about/decide what course of action is ethically right.

Question 14

Level 1: Pre-conventional

Answer 14

individuals are very self-centered and views ethical rules as imposed from outside the self.

Question 15

Level 1 - Stage 1

Answer 15

Obedience and punishment orientation: obedience to authority for own sake, stick to rules to avoid punishment

Question 16

Level 1 - Stage 2

Answer 16

Instrumental purpose and exchange: following rules only in interest. Rights is an equal exchange of getting a good deal

Question 17

Level 2: Conventional

Answer 17

the individual is still externally focused on others but is less self-centered and has internalized the shared moral norms of society or some segment like a family / work group. What is ethically right is explained in terms of living up to roles and the expectations of relevant others.

Question 18

Level 2 - Stage 3

Answer 18

interpersonal accord, conformity, mutual expectation. stereotypically ‘good’ behavior. Living up to what is expected by peers.

Question 19

Level 2 - Stage 4

Answer 19

Social Accord and system maintenance. fulfilling duties and obligations of social system. uphold laws except in extreme cases where they conflict with social duties

Question 20

Level 3

Answer 20

individuals developed beyond identification with other’s expectations, rules, and laws to make decisions more autonomously. Looks to ethical principles of justice and rights

Question 21

Level 3 - Stage 5

Answer 21

Interpersonal accord and individual rights. Upholding rules because it’s a social contract for greater good

Question 22

Level 3 - Stage 6

Answer 22

universal ethical principles

Question 23

Looking up and Looking around

Answer 23

adults are high susceptible to external influences on their judgement about what is ethical right and therefore their likely action is inextricably inked wit what others think,say, and do.

Question 24

Locus of control

Answer 24

an individuals perception of how much control he exerts over life events

Question 25

Internal locus of control

Answer 25

believes that outcomes are primarily the result of his own efforts

Question 26

External locus of control

Answer 26

believes that life events are determined primarily by fate, luck, or powerful others.

Question 27

Machiavellians

Answer 27

Associated with unethical action, used to describe individuals who act in self-interest, opportunistic, deceptive, and manipulative ways to win not matter what the costs or how it affects other people

Question 28

3 moral disengagement categories

Answer 28

1. Making bad behavior seem more acceptable
2. Distorting consequences or reducing personal responsibility for bad outcomes
3. reduce identification with the victims of unethical behavior

Question 29

Euphemistic Language

Answer 29

used to easily keep individuals from thinking about the ethical implication of decisions or actions

Question 30

Moral Justification

Answer 30

whereby unethical behavior is thought to be ok because it contributes to some socially valued outcome

Question 31

Advantageous comparison

Answer 31

people compare their own behavior to more reprehensible behavior that thus make their own behavior seem okay

Question 32

Displacement of responsibility

Answer 32

individuals will reduce personal accountability by thinking of their actions as resulting form an authority figures dictates

Question 33

Diffusion of responsibility

Answer 33

individuals will reduce personal accountability by looking to others or the group

Question 34

distorting consequences

Answer 34

individuals will think of negative consequences as less serious than they are

Question 35

dehumanization

Answer 35

individuals make those who would be harmed less worthy of ethical consideration because they’re thought to be different, stupid, or not even human - genocide

Question 36

Attribution of Blame

Answer 36

lays blame on victims of harm for variety of reasons (it’s their own fault)