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Question 1

Personality

Answer 1

the unique characteristics that account for enduring patterns on inner experience and outward behaviour.

Question 2

Personality Structure

Answer 2

-top level: conscious: thoughts and feelings that we are aware of.
-Second level: preconscious: thoughts, memories and ideas that can be brought into consciousness if attendees to.
-Deepest level: unconscious: unaware of this content within our minds, except for specific circumstances.

Question 3

ID EGO SUPEREGO

Answer 3

-ID: basic instinctual drive: eating, sleeping, sex, and comfort. (Pleasure principle)
-Ego: the personality element that works to satisfy the drive of the ID while complying with the constraints placed on behaviour by the environment (reality principle)
-SuperEgo: in charge of determining which impulses are acceptable to express openly and which are unacceptable; develops as we observe and internalize the behaviours of others in our cultures.

Question 4

Neurosis

Answer 4

an abnormal behaviour patterns cause by unresolved conflicts between the ID, ego and superego.

Question 5

Adler

Answer 5

how feelings of inferiority(everyone has from childhood) are channeled into a quest for superiority. Not keen on sexual motives or the unconscious.

Question 6

Jung

Answer 6

believed in the importance of the unconscious. Collective unconscious: inherited memories of all humankind, these shared memories were called archetypes, which were symbols/images that appear throughout all cultures.

-He believed the unconscious also included a drive for creativity, joy, and internal harmony. He believed both the conscious and the unconscious worked together to make the SELF.

-– Persona: the “mask” (role) you are in (social)
– Anima/us: your potential to become
– Shadow: aspects that were denied (moral)
– Ego: thoughts, feelings, memories (experience)

Question 7

Horney

Answer 7

Basic anxiety: forms in children who experience feelings of isolation and helplessness.

Question 8

Abraham Maslow

Answer 8

believed all humans were basically good, inside all of us is a urge to grow and fulfill our potential. Personality derives from striving to meet needs.
-SELF ACTUALIZATION: the need of humans to fulfill their full and special potential; the highest level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
-POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: positive experiences and healthy mental functioning.
-PEAK EXPERIENCES: moments in which people experience intense clarity of perception, feelings of joy and excitement, and a suspended sense of time and reality -> happy Hyperfixation.

Question 9

Carl Rogers

Answer 9

Self Concept: a pattern of self perception that remains consistent over time and can be used to characterize an individual. This is made up of how we see ourselves and how others see us.
-Unconditional positive regard: acceptance without terms or conditions.

Question 10

Personality Traits

Answer 10

tendencies to behave in certain ways that remain relatively constant across situations. Most traits don’t emerge full-blow, but rather develop gradually over time.

Question 11

Gordon Allport: Lexical Hypothesis:

Answer 11

Lexical Hypothesis: the idea that our language contains the important ways in which people can differ. 10,000 traits
-the idea that the most important differences between people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people.
-The lexical hypothesis states that people encode in their everyday languages all those differences between individuals that they perceive to be prominent and that they consider to be socially relevant in their everyday lives.

Question 12

Raymond Cattell: Factor analysis:

Answer 12

Factor analysis: it is based on calculations of the interrelationships among trait words. The goal is simplification: to reduce a large set of traits into a small number of clusters, called FACTORS. Took 10,000 traits down to 16 traits.
-“Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.”

Question 13

Eysenck (Theoretic Approaches: Bio)

Answer 13

his factor analysis, employing newer techniques designed to reduce overlap, yielded 3 independent SUPER FACTORS:
• Reactivity to stimulation
– Extraversion/Introversion: reflect behaviours
– Stability/Neuroticism: reflect emotions
– Psychoticism/Normality: reflect adherence to social norm < Social dominance(testosterone) related to psychoticism

❑The Lemon Test
▪ Introverts produce more saliva (sensitive to stimulating drugs-cocaine), Extroverts less saliva (sensitive to depressive drugs-alcohol)

Question 14

Interpersonal circle/chart:

Answer 14

a two dimensional personality trait model based on blends of dominance and nurturance.

Question 15

Personality Inventory

Answer 15

a questionnaire designed to assess various aspects of personality. - self report

Question 16

FIVE FACTOR MODEL

Answer 16

O.C.E.A.N. - an empirically derived trait model that possesses 5 major trait categories:
1. openness to experience/unimaginative
2. Conscientiousness/irresponsibility
3. extroversion/introversion
4. agreeableness/dis
5. neuroticism/stability

***look at chart

Question 17

Socially Desirable Responding:

Answer 17

tailoring answers on personality inventions to try to create a good impression.

Question 18

Projective Test:

Answer 18

a personality assessment device intended to tap into a person’s unconscious by presenting the person with an ambiguous stimulus and asking the person to interpret what the stimulus means. - ink block test

Question 19

Thematic Apperception:

Answer 19

ambiguous black and white drawings of people in various situations. Test takers are asked to describe and make up a story of shown image.

Question 20

The situationist perspective and Situationism

Answer 20

The situationist perspective: shaped/pushed/pulled by our environment BF Skinner
-Situationism: a view of personality, which notes that in many social situations people respond in similar ways, meaning theatre the situation drives their response rather than their personality.

Question 21

Social Cognitive Theory and Interactionist: Bandura.

Answer 21

-Disposition(traits)-Situation(environment)
-social cognitive theory: Bandura. Modelling and self efficacy. - B believed that the external environment(situ), internal thoughts(SE)(beliefs and expectations), and behaviour all interact with one another. This model of observable variables, such as models, behaviours, goals and outcomes are readily testable.
-Self Efficacy: personal beliefs about one’s ability to perform at a certain level
-personality is an illusion, environments shape behaviour
-Situ: circumstances are more determinant of our behaviour.

Question 22

Biological Foundations of Personality:

Answer 22

more likely, multiple genes interact and affect an individual’s broad biological systems, and theses systems contribute to the traits or behaviours in question.

Question 23

Hormones: Cortisol:

Answer 23

cortisol = help regulate reactions to threatening experiences

Question 24

Negative emotionality:

Answer 24

high levels of neg emotionality experience more neg emotions and see the world as distressing

Question 25

Positive Emotionality:

Answer 25

how a person interacts with their environment. Higher positive emotionality are people who lead active and social lives, people who have low PE shy and low self confidence

Question 26

Disinhibition versus constraint:

Answer 26

how we regulate our emotions. High Disinhibition have difficulty controlling their emotions.

Question 27

Differences in Personality: gender and culture

Answer 27

-Gender: Social Role Theory: gender differences occur because girls and boys develop different behaviours and skills based largely on differences in gender role expectations. + hormones
-Cultural Differences: individualistic v collectivist

Question 28

Personality Defined:

Answer 28

❖Individual’s unique constellation of consistent behavioural traits
-individuality of experience
-enduring across situations. It’s what you do when no one else knows what todo.
• Issues:
– differentiating between…
❑Short vs. long-term responses
❑trait v state
❑Cultural (social) vs. individual influence - how we define personality and behaviour
– Cognition (how one thinks), and Affect (“tone” of behaviour)

Question 29

Theoretic Approaches N v N

Answer 29

❖Nature (biological theory)
• Psychodynamic: Unconscious parts of self
• Traits: enduring patterns of behavior
– Biological: Body (and substrates) shape our experience and interpretation
❖Nurture
Humanistic: Motivation/wants (self-actualization) • Social-Cognitive influences(how we learn to behave in certain situations)- what makes a high achieving individual. How we rank things in terms of importance to us. -Learning
❖Interpersonal
• Self-esteem: self-serving bias – Nature and Nurture -self esteem is your understanding of how other people rate you.

Question 30

Theoretic Approach
➢Operationalizations: Psychodynamic Approaches

Answer 30

• Change as a function of conflict - occurs across life span/unstable
1. Across development/lifespan
2. Discrepancy between needs/wants and environment.
– Resolution of these conflicts contribute to behaviour
❑Personality is enduring
Inner forces are Dynamic: changing and interacting – Conscious (engaging) and Unconscious -disengaged (engrained)
❑Personality emerges from the negotiation of needs
❑internalized behaviours shape future interactions

Question 31

Freud

Answer 31

❖Levels of Consciousness
• Conscious: focus attention and remember clearly - something you can experience
• Preconscious: “dynamic unconscious” vague, sometimes
realized sometimes not - you can function while not being fully aware - phone on bus
– Parapraxes (“slip of the tongue”) - pre conscious (Freud)
– Sublimation (repress) - what we repress it becomes our gut instinct
Unconscious: Drives behaviour based on pleasure principle -bio drive - Darwin
– Eros/Thanatos, Biological/Moral

Question 32

Freud Iceberg

Answer 32

❖Dialectic Tensions (iceberg of consciousness)
• Id: impulses to maintain and reproduce – Pleasure principle: derive pleasure, avoid pain - monkey brain
Ego: mediator between demands of ID and Super-Ego – Reality principle: maximize rewards while avoiding censure - mediator between ID and Sego. Reality principle. Conflict emerges.
• Super-Ego: Internalization of social norm – Morality principle: Ego-ideal, conscience and guilt - culture/society, it is a internalized interpretation of how you should and should not be behaving. Also when you should be ashamed of yourself. Guilt - knew and feel bad. Inner voice”dont do that”

Question 33

Modern Defence Mechanisms

Answer 33

Modern Defence Mechanisms:
-Regression: patient going back to behaviour that was fixed earlier. Regress back to old coping mechanisms
-Reaction formation: used to describe a trigger in PTSD, something that indicates trauma
-Projection: people tend to project animosity or blame onto others when faced with
-Rationalization: people justifying bad behaviour- removed the emotional component to it. Distancing the responsibility to feel better
-Displacement: emotions, displace emotions onto something or someone where it does not impact them
-Denial: of responsibility

Question 34

Freud Def Mech

Answer 34

Defence Mechanisms: Repression
-Regression: retreat to an earlier(more infantile) psychosexual stage
-Reaction formation: unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses to opposite, acceptable impulses
-Projection: disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
-Rationalization: self-justification in a place of real, threatening, unconscious reasons
-Displacement: shifts impulses toward acceptable, less threatening object/person
-Denial: refusal to believe or perceive of painful realities

Question 35

Theoretic Approaches: Psychodynamic
➢Psychoanalysis
❖Methodological problems

Prob with Freud

Answer 35

1) Lack of scientific testability
– Operationalization of concepts too vague
– Operationalization impossible for ”principles”
2) Lack of empirical evidence
– Based on small groups of female patients & self-analysis
❑Generalizability, validity
– Non-objective data collection (analyst’s interpretation)
3) Not a unifying principle
– Emphasis of male prototype – No replication across culture

Question 36

Theoretic Approaches: Psychodynamic
➢Conflict Theories

Answer 36

❖Generally Accepted:
• Personality comprised of Id, Ego, Super-Ego
• Importance of Unconscious and childhood experiences in forming personality - adverse childhood experiences shape personality
Role of defence mechanisms in reducing anxiety, yes and they are defined differently now
❖Differentiated:
• Emphasis on conscious mind’s influence on interpreting experience and coping
• Doubted sex & aggression as only/all-consuming motives
The effect of social (not sexual) tensions - school, parents, peers tensions

Question 37

Theoretic Approaches
➢Neo-analytic approach(testing x3) + and -

Answer 37

❖Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projections (sub-conscious) -we don’t acknowledge subconscious now a days - but what it is connecting to is our semantic networks. Certain words go with others, ie dog -cat, chair - table
• Rorschach Test (inkblots) - to promote dialogue- v helpful with children - you might be able to hear from them more. Not he test of choice
• Thematic Appreciation Test (situations and concepts) - bias
• Washington University Sentence Completion Test (associations) -having people project their own beliefs and thoughts onto the test.. most answers are the same.
❑Strengths:
• Provide rich data
• Generates discussion (discourse)
❑Limitations:
• Complicated coding systems (prone to error)
• Long to administer
Low reliability(statistical) (trained raters come with different interpretations)
Low validity (misdiagnosis of healthy individuals)

Question 38

Theoretic Approaches: Psychodynamic
➢Analytical Psychology (Jung, XXXX)
❖“Dialectic” (balance of opposites)

Answer 38

• Self as a union of opposites:
– Thinking vs Feeling, Sensation(reality of here and now) vs Intuition
❑Judgement vs Perception(grounded biologically)
– Persona: the “mask” (roles) you are in (social) how you engage with society
– Anima/us: your potential to become - not what you are now but what you are born to become
– Shadow: aspects that were denied (moral) -things you will never be - you knew your shadow, it is not a denial, it is an active I will not be ____.
– Ego: thoughts, feelings, memories (experience) - who you are. -> Narrative (story) is how you made sense of yourself
-Neo-analytic approach: Collective unconscious. Common psychic background of humanity. Concepts/archetypes emerge from culture. Personal(own story) unconscious taps into collective through symbolic thinking. - a way to make sense of your own experience.
-^ what we use to engage in dialectic therapy today.

Question 39

Theoretic Approaches
➢Biological Approaches

Answer 39

❖Personality is a dynamic organization of responses • traits (enduring) and state (malleable)
• Measured using Inventories
– Strength: Objective, easily administered
– Weakness: social desirability – participants will attempt to create a good impression
❖The Person-Situation Debate
How do personality, behaviour, and situation interact?
Personality predicts likelihood of response
Situations constrain behaviour
❑Personalities determine their environments - based on our interests.

Question 40

Theoretic Approaches: Operationalization: MODEL FACTORS

Answer 40

-mathematical algorithms that attempt to extract commonality from items - reduce variability in clusters, increase variability across factors
-parsimony: simplest possible explanation.
EX: OBSERVED VARIABLES : taste of food, food temp, and freshness of food –> FACTORS: Quality

Question 41

Freud Problems

Answer 41

❖Methodological problems
1) Lack of scientific testability
– Operationalization of concepts too vague
– Operationalization impossible for ”principles”
2) Lack of empirical evidence
– Based on small groups of female patients & self-analysis
❑Generalizability, validity
– Non-objective data collection (analyst’s interpretation)
3) Not a unifying principle
– Emphasis of male prototype – No replication across culture

Question 42

Conflict Theories: Psychodynamic

Answer 42

❖Generally Accepted:
• Personality comprised of Id, Ego, Super-Ego
• Importance of Unconscious and childhood experiences in forming personality - adverse childhood experiences shape personality
Role of defence mechanisms in reducing anxiety, yes and they are defined differently now
❖Differentiated:
• Emphasis on conscious mind’s influence on interpreting experience and coping
• Doubted sex & aggression as only/all-consuming motives
The effect of social (not sexual) tensions - school, parents, peers tensions

Question 43

Interactionist Perspective

Answer 43

Interactionist Perspective: a view emphasizing the relationship between a person’s underlying personality traits and reinforcing aspects of situations in which they choose to put themselves.

Question 44

O.C.E.A.N

Answer 44

O:Openness: imagination, ideas, feelings, thoughts:
Low: reserved, prefers routine, practical
High: curious, likes trying new things, wide range of hobbies

C:Conscientiousness: thoughtfulness, goal driven, competent, and self motivated:
Low: impulsive, careless, disorganized
High: hardworking, dependable, organized

E:Extraversion: sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression:
Low: Introversion, quiet, reserved, withdrawn
High: outgoing, warm, adventurous

A:Agreeableness: cooperative, trust worthy, good natured:
Low: critical, uncooperative, suspicious
HIgh: trusting, helpful, empathetic

N:Neuroticism: unstable emotions:
Low: calm, even temperament, secure
High: anxious, depressed, negative emotions