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Question 1

Thinking and Reasoning

Answer 1

Thinking relates to knowledge and knowing, you can’t problem solve or think about something you don’t know. We cannot problem solve if that solution hasn’t been attempted before set as a precedent.

Question 2

-What is Reasoning: Relationship with memory:
Categorical thinking: exemplar, Heuristics, Bias

Answer 2

-Category: structure of knowledge in the mind
-exemplars: the use of individual types in a category to build a category
-Hueristics: what happens when you have a category, how do you apply that category on exemplars you’ve never seen before
-Bias- systematic errors emerge through categorical thinking that lead us to make the same mistakes

Question 3

Problem-solving defined

Answer 3

Problem-solving: creativity and insight
1.well-defined problems: arithmetic
2.ill-defined problems: messy roommate
-to define a problem, you must your current state and your goal, and identify the differences between them.
-how we solve problems shows us how we think
-a problem is open ended and there are many ways to solve a problem

Question 4

What is Knowledge? Episodic
Categories:

Answer 4

Abstraction, Templates, and Prototypes

-this is how we have and use templates to store and use information in our minds
-We put them(templates) together semantically
-people make abstractions because they are no longer concrete and they have prototypes for abstract ideas

Question 5

Abstraction:

Answer 5

Expertise: is a way an individual engages with exemplars and an expert is an individual who looks at every exemplar uniquely and not holistically like a category.

-its not either or, its both methods. We take the differential approaches depending on what kind of information we have.

Question 6

Template: Exemplars

Answer 6

Exemplars: Perceptual tuning: sensitivity to select features:
When you see an exemplar you match it to templates in your mind (from memory). You have a memory for dogs, cats, plants, flowers etc
-tiger and cat: exemplars
-knowledge is based on categories and similarities of selected features

Question 7

Prototype:

Answer 7

Weighted Features: Holistic integration of features
-This is what happens when we see a creature that we are not too sure of, our brain makes a prototype to categorize it. Show a child a pic of baby bear, they will call it a dog as their prototype is furry, four legs etc
-we don’t actually have a concept of anything, we have an amalgamation of information
-store information- triggers when u see it in person. Prototype: our minds make an average and then we apply to info to those averages

Question 8

What is knowledge? Semantic

Answer 8

Concepts: A mental representation: Idea or Meaning: dogs, cats, + pets: is a category

Question 9

Feature Comparison Model

Answer 9

How we order our thoughts:
Defining Features + Characteristic Features(neither of these are defining of the category) and (A)typical effect.

placing exemplars based on their similarities in a space, in the far reaches of this space lays the atypical exemplars were set - what they determined the likelihood of features.
-people are faster to name atypical exemplars rather than typical
-when things are atypical -> becomes more memorable
-knowledge conflicts with memory - how we categorize exemplars based on those necessary features but how memory then plays apart in how those features are configured and how they are put together, and if they are put together in a certain way they are easier to recall
-what’s memory and what’s knowledge?? - they collide quite often

mental rep of of an idea
-a meaning/semantics of something - how we approach and senate with a certain kind of object
-concepts/templates are good how we understand information
-we are using comparisons to build a category that includes all the exemplars by using exemplars to define the category.

Question 10

Defining Features:

Answer 10

Necessary for the meaning of the item

Question 11

Characteristic Features

Answer 11

descriptive but not essential

Question 12

(A)Typical Effect:

Answer 12

changes in discrimination time based on likelihood of features
-how we treat atypical exemplars
-Ostrich!
-placing exemplars based on their similarities in a space, in the far reaches of this space lays the atypical exemplars were set - what they determined the likelihood of features.
-people are faster to name atypical exemplars rather than typical
-when things are atypical -> becomes more memorable
-knowledge conflicts with memory - how we categorize exemplars based on those necessary features but how memory then plays apart in how those features are configured and how they are put together, and if they are put together in a certain way they are easier to recall

Question 13

Concepts: Semantic Networks:
Hierarchical Model (Collins & Quillians, 1969)

Answer 13

-Association between
-Concepts: integration
-Properties: traits -> dependent on context

-we create works for things
-the super ordinate category: more abstract: what is a _____. <- prototypes
-Basic level: partly abstract and partly concrete. Tree, flower, bird, fish, and humans.
-sub originate category: has and is _______. <- exemplars

-we can take something abstract and make it concrete: rock -> hammer (changing the category)
-depending on context will determine how we behave and react to seeing at cat or dog, we will treat them differently.

Question 14

Reasoning, Heuristics, and Algorithms:

Answer 14

reasoning relies on semantics networks and use concrete examples and conceptual ideas ->

-Reasoning: Grouping strategy based on critical features
Heuristics: Develop solution, quick; error-prone, superficial (perceptual): choose answer and move backwards9good for ill defined problems), forming sub goals, and fast and more intuition and recalling similar problems in your head.
Algorithms: apply rule, slow; accurate, logical(cognitive)Opposite of Heuristics. slow(contemplate) less error probes as you catch eh errors before they happen

—Availability -easily remembered is more probable
—Representativeness -similarity with other instances
—Probability -reliant on knowledge of parameters/likelihood

Question 15

Cognition:

Answer 15

Mental processes of thinking and knowing

Question 16

What Distinguishes humans from other animals?

Answer 16

Language and thought characteristics

Question 17

Language and Speech:

Answer 17

-A set of symbols used to communicate
-The expression of language through sound

Question 18

Language Production and Language Comprehension

Answer 18

-LP: the structured and conventional expression of thoughts through words
-LC: the processing of understanding spoken, written, and signed language

Question 19

Phoneme and Phonology

Answer 19

-The smallest unit of sound in language; an individual sound such as ba, da, or ta
-The study of how individual sounds or phonemes are used to produce language

Question 20

Language Structure: Linguistics

Answer 20

Phonemes, Morphemes, Syntax, and Pragmatics

Question 21

Morpheme and Semantics:

Answer 21

-The Smallest units conveying meaning
-The study of how meaning in language is constructed of individual words and sentences.

Question 22

Categories

Answer 22

are abstract and determined by experience with exemplars

Question 23

Creativity

Answer 23

is most related to algorithms

Question 24

Super-ordinate level:

Answer 24

mammal

Question 25

Quiz Q

Answer 25

-The dynamic aspect of language does NOT have a critical period

-Bronca’s aphasia is a disorder of grammar

-Language has a direct impact on semantic networks

-communication is facilitated by emotions

Question 26

Lexical Meaning

Answer 26

dictionary meaning of a word. Lex meaning changes over time. Eg. Awful

Question 27

Syntax

Answer 27

the system of using words(semantics) and word order to convey meaning(Grammar)

Question 28

Pragmatics

Answer 28

the practical of language usage; including speech pace, gesturing, and body language. Non-verbal communication: the way we move our faces, hands, and bodies can change the connotations of our speech.

Question 29

Pre-vocal Learning

Answer 29

(Age 2-4 months):
Bb’s with normal hearing are capable of perceiving the phonemes of every language, even ones they are not being taught/surrounded by - able to distinguish between the sounds.

Question 30

Cooing

Answer 30

(starts about 2 months of age): vowel like sounds

Question 31

Babbling

Answer 31

(Starts around 6 months): ba-ba-pa-ta

Question 32

Telegraphic Speech

Answer 32

(by the age of two): short sentences, typically two words. Want cookie or cookie give. Babies are learning Syntax

Question 33

Lang Dev Pragmatics

Answer 33

(3 years old): has practical information about language use. Ie. pauses between sentences, knowing the dif between sentences as statements and requests. Knows around 1000 words

Question 34

Lang Dev Grammar

Answer 34

(age 4) children have automatically absorbed many of the rules of grammar, without formal education. (By the age of 6, most children use around 3,00 words + understands around 14,000) (By the age of 9, practical aspects of language emerge, such as inferring meaning of obscure language, interpreting metaphors, and understanding sophisticated humour.) Language processes in size and sophistication with age.

Question 35

N Chomsky

Answer 35

suggested that language is built into our brains(biological basis), the brain seems to be set up to understand and communicate using language.

Question 36

Critical Period

Answer 36

a window of time in development during which certain influences are necessary for appropriate formation of the brain. After the critical period, these influences are NO longer capable of having as profound an impact on the brain. Genie and Ukrainian boy eg

Question 37

Sensitive Period

Answer 37

a developmental time during which the brain is more susceptible to influences. After the sensitive period, change CAN still occur, but it doesn’t happen as readily.

Question 38

BF Skinner

Answer 38

environment plays a critical role as well. Language is acquired as a result of instrumental conditioning. (Correcting speech of a child)
-Conditioning alone cannot explain language acquisition. Interactive theories suggest that experience interacts with bio development to enhance and guide language learning. IE: if a baby isn’t exposed to certain phonemes, their capacity to distinguish among these sounds diminishes over time.

Question 39

Child Directed Speech

Answer 39

speech characterized by exaggerated emotional responses and a slower pace that is cross-culturally common among caregivers communicating with babies and young children.

Question 40

The development of syntax and grammatical rules, suggests what?

Answer 40

an interaction of biology and environment.

Question 41

Over-regularization

Answer 41

‘goed’ instead of ‘went’. Elementary children.

Question 42

Genie

Answer 42

A sensitive period DOES exist

Question 43

Broca’s Area and Aphasia

Answer 43

-Broca’s area: located in frontal lobe - important for speech production. -movement of lips, tongue, larynx.

-Broca’s aphasia: damage to Broca’s area, where the patient is unable to produce coherent speech. Which effects more movement than thought. Comprehension intact.

-More damage to the Broca’s area may cause agrammatism: an inability to speak with proper Grammar. - this explains how Grammar is automatic once learned. She is going -> she go.(telegraphic speech)

Question 44

Wernicke’s Area and Aphasia

Answer 44

-Wernickes’ area: language comprehension,

-Wernickes’s aphasia: they cannot understand speech, but they understand their own(Making up words). They produce fluent but disordered speech. Grammatical, meaningless output

Question 45

Brain and Language learning

Answer 45

-Amygdala: fear and aggression - involved in using profanity

-Right hemisphere of brain: to understand figurative language, ie metaphors. - found with transcranial magnetic stimulation.

-memory to learn language in adulthood is not the W and B areas(like childhood- learning more than 1 language) prefrontal cortex(memory) and temporal lobe(acquisition of semantic information)

-Language: vocab is affected by environment. Eye movement and reading speed are connected.

-after age 13, ability to learn languages becomes much harder. This includes sign language.

Question 46

Mental Imagery

Answer 46

picturing things in your mind. Most of it does not involve language. Our ability to use imagery yo solve problems is often based closely on our spatial memory.
- what ever you are thinking of activates that part of the brain, thinking of the taste of bananas actives parts of the brains that are activated when actually eating and tasting a banana.
-Mental imagery does not explain or describe all that it encompasses.

Question 47

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Answer 47

language greatly influences our thinking

-more understanding = detailed explanation

-our a huge is influenced by the surroundings we live in.cog processes are different for different people. People who speak different languages see the world differntly

Question 48

Language(Mental Representation) 5:

Answer 48

1.Arbitrary: symbolically transformed
2.Dynamic: include/create concepts
3.Communicative: Convey to another entity(goal is to send signal to someone else)
4.Structured: Systematic rules(how we put words 2GTHER)
5.Generative: combination is malleable/creative
Problem: learning another language

Question 49

Universal Grammar(Symbolic Representation) 3:

Answer 49

1. Deep Surface: semantics; meaning
2. Surface structure: how it’s communicated; syntax
3. Grammar: rules that allow us to communicate
   Problem: intellectual disabilities

Question 50

Linguistic Determinism: Whorf

Answer 50

-language determines/governs/affects non-linguistic cognitive processes and behaviour.

(Whorf): fire, limestone, cigarettes, - didn’t know that stone could be flammable. It was not arson.
❖“Language determines the way we think” - semantics are how we view the world.
❖Sensation - yes we tend to pay attention to items we can conceptualize depending on the words we use.
– Conceptualization: organization of incoming stimuli
❑Attention
❖Perception: names as categorical structure. Words are how we build categories.
– Categorical thinking: Similarity/differences
❑naming
Language emerges from semantic networks
❑Relies on learning & memory
❑Related to creativity/insight (problem solving)

Question 51

Creativity: Problem Finding: ReQ can

Answer 51

moving away from an ability to transfer knowledge and more about coming up with new ideas. Reinterpreting the questions parameters into something that you can tackle. How do we cure cancer? -> PF: What is cancer? -> at a cellular level why are the cancer cells mutating? Reinterpreting research parameters.

Question 52

Creativity Debate:

Answer 52

-Creativity is the ability to transfer knowledge, it is not wrote or ingrained but rather taking info from one area and sub plant it in another area.
-Creativity is the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
-Creativity and problem solving is a function of likelihoods - algorithmic thinking - no heuristics? Some say <-

Question 53

Goal Directed Behaviour of PS

Answer 53

-Anything that thinks has a categorical and associated structure.
-What you do with that information in service to problem solving seems to be the crux of creativity.
-Creativity is a function of intellectual capacity. Humans
-Creativity is a form of problem solving. - crow

Question 54

Developmental Perspectives: 3 and ling nativism

Answer 54

➢Developmental Perspectives
❖Poverty of the Stimulus: the number of exemplars
provided do not allow for the construction of rules • Debate
1) Underlying structure is similar; exemplars can be categorized
2) Errors in grammar are present and are corrected(environment(parents) will fix it for them(children) eg. Exemplars)
3) Dev. trajectory is step-wise and gradually becomes more
complex. There is a certain order in which we use words. EG. Ba ba -> ball -> pretty ball.
❖Linguistic Nativism: predisposition for the acquisition:

Question 55

Representativeness Heuristics: Eng v Law

Answer 55

The assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category of which they are a member. Draw conclusions based on a small set of specific details, ignoring other relevant information.

Question 56

Availability Heuristics

Answer 56

Judging easily-recalled events as more common. Just because it is easy to remember we place it as more common, not because it is necessarily common, we tend to rely more heavily on recent memories to make judgments about events.

Question 57

Rational decision Making:

Answer 57

Cell phone

Question 58

Mental Set:

Answer 58

Tendency to use PS strategies that have worked in the past