3.5: US Democracy and Participation

Question 1

What is the name of the electoral system used for Presidential Elections in the USA?

Answer 1

ELECTORAL COLLEGE

• A body of electors who cast votes on behalf of their states to formally elect the President and the Vice President of the USA every 4 years.
• States were to appoint electors who would vote for the President on behalf of that state.
• Elections take places on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, with 50 state-wide elections rather than one national election.

Question 2

What is the electoral process for Presidential Elections?

Answer 2

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION PROCESS

1. Candidates within each party compete to be their party’s nominee.
   a) Invisible Primary (18/24 months before election day).
   - The time between a candidate formally announcing their intention to run for Presidential office and the first official primary caucus (test the waters).
   - Before this, many release books; Hilliary wrote ‘Hard Choice’ in 2014, Obama wrote ‘Audacity of Hope’ in 2006 to show their political manifesto.
   - Straw polls are glorifed opinion polls.
   b) Early state primaries and caucuses such as New Hampshire and Iowa (Feb/9 months before).
   c) ‘Super Tuesday’ (Mar/8 months before).
   d) Late state primaries and caucuses (June/5 months before).
   e) National Party Conventions (July/4 months before).
2. The nominated candidates from different parties compete against each other.
   a) The election campaign, including televised debates (1-3 months before/Aug-Oct).
   b) Election Day (Nov).
   c) Electoral College Ballots Cast (1 month after/Dec).
   d) Inauguration of the new President (2 months after/Jan).

Question 3

What is the difference between Primaries and Caucuses?

Answer 3

PRIMARY

• An intraparty ballot to nominate the candidate for a party in the Presidential election.
• Secret Ballot.
• Often conducted on a state-wide basis/
• Used by 38 states (Alabama, North Carolina, Florida, New York…).

CAUCUSES

• An intraparty town-hall-style meeting in which voters physically exercise their preferences (moving to a part of a room or through a show of hands) in order to decide who will represent their party in the Presidential election.
• Voting often takes place in public.
• Often conducted in small local areas within a state (Republican Iowa caucus had 700 locations at 8 pm, lasting an hour).
• Used by 12 states (Iowa, Nevada, Colorado…).

Question 4

What is the Invisible Primary and why is it significant?

Answer 4

INVISIBLE PRIMARY

1. No ‘official’ beginning to the invisible primary but is rather a period which potential candidates for a party compete to attract attention, money and endorsements for their campaign.
   a) Competition is intraparty meaning that it is within a party.
   b) Growth of the media in the digital age has played an increasing role in the Presidential campaign.
   - Televised debates such as 12 for Republicans in 2016 and 20 in 2012 with diminishing numbers.
   c) Candidates use this to gain momentum with ‘name recognition’ often prompting a viable campaign.
   - Raise profile through events, especially the announcement of their candidacy.
   - Jeb Bush announced his candidacy in 2015, yet suffered criticism from Trump and other Republicans on Twitter during the invisible primary, later withdrawing on 20 Feb 2016 despite starting as the favourite to win with strong recognition and raising $114 million with Hilary on $69 million in the first half of 2015.
   d) Michele Bachmann was the frontrunner in the 2011 Iowa Straw poll as an evangelical Christian, yet said the bible was fundamentally true and blamed swine flu on Jimmy Carter which was a blow to her campaign.
2. Attract finance.
   a) Through direct donations from the voters (grassroots) or from Political Action Committees (PACs) or Super-PACs.
3. 2016 Republican candidates.
   a) There were 17 different candidates aimed at the Republican Party for the Presidency.
   b) 5 withdrew in during the invisible primary before the first official primary took place, 7 more withdrew in the 20 days following the first primary in Feb 2016.
   - George Pataki (May 2015 - 29 Dec 2015) withdrew due to the lack of public support in polls.
   - Rick Perry (June 2015 - 11 Sep 2015) withdrew due to a lack of financial support.
   - Scott Walker (July 2015 - 21 Sep 2015) withdrew due to a lack of funding to keep up with his campaign spending.
   - Bobby Jindal (June 2015 - 17 Nov 2015) withdrew due to a lack of public support and financial backing.
   - Lindsay Graham (June 2015 - 21 Dec 2015) withdrew due to a lack of public support in polls.
4. 2020 Democrat candidates.
   a) There were 29 major candidates.
   b) 18 withdrew in the invisible primaries
   - Cory Brooker (Feb 2019 - Jan 2020) withdrew for reelection as Senator for New Jersey.

Question 5

What are PACs and Super-PACs and 527s?

Answer 5

POLITICAL ACTION COMMITTEES (PACs)
- A group which can raise money to support a candidate in an election, donating a maximum of $5,000 to their campaign directly.

SUPER-PAC
- A group which can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose a candidate, but which is not allowed to donate directly to a campaign or coordinate with a campaign.

527s

• A tax-exempt organisation organised under Section 527 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code.
• They can raise unlimited amounts but cannot call for the election or defeat of a candidate.

Question 6

Has spending in Presidential elections increased over time?

Answer 6

CAMPAIGN SPENDING

1. The rising cost of campaigns (best president money can buy).
   a) Mike Bloomberg outspent his rivals in the 2020 Democrat candidacy at $539 million against all his rivals combined at $209 million.
   - Bernie Sanders has spent $48 million up until Bloomberg quit.
   - Pete Buttigieg has spent $35.4 million in ads.
   - Joe Biden spent $13.9 million.
   b) President Obama’s 2012 campaign for president spent $338 million.
2. 2016 Presidential elections
   a) Large disparity between the two leading candidates.
   - Hilliary Clinton spent $1.191 billion, with ‘Priorities USA Action’ Super PAC raised $132 million.
   - Trump spent $0.6468 billion
   b) Trump benefitted from nearly $2 billion worth of ‘free’ media attention due to his controversial nature and ‘shock and awe’ tactic.
   - Hilliary Clinton gained just $746 million from ‘free’ media.

Question 7

What are the different types of Primaries/Caucuses?

Answer 7

DIFFERENT PRIMARIES/CAUCUSES

1. Open Primaries/Caucuses
   a) All voters in a state can take part, regardless of whether they are a registered party member.
   b) Voters can take part in only one primary.
   - They would, therefore, have to decide whether to vote in the Democratic or Republican (or 3rd party) primary/caucus.
   - A Democrat voter could, therefore, vote in the Republican primary and vice versa.
2. Closed Primaries/Caucuses
   a) Only voters who are registered as a party member can take part.
   - Registered Democrats would be allowed to take part in the Democratic primary/caucus with voters sent a ballot only id they are registered party members.
3. Semi-Closed Primaries/Caucuses
   a) A hybrid of both open and closed. Registered party members are allowed to take part only in their party’s primary/caucus.
   b) Unregistered voters are allowed to choose which party primary/caucus they want to vote in.

Question 8

How are delegates from Primaries/Caucuses allocated?

Answer 8

DELEGATE ALLOCATION
- In 2016, Democrats had 4,763 delegates whilst Republicans had 2,472.

1. Proportionality
   a) The delegates are allocated proportionally to the vote the candidate receives.
   b) Used by all democrat primaries and caucuses and select Republican ones.
2. Winner-takes-all
   a) The candidate with the biggest share of the vote is allocated all of the delegates for that state.
   b) Used by some Republican primaries and caucuses.
3. Proportional unless a threshold is reached
   a) Delegates are allocated proportionally unless if one candidate reaches the ‘threshold’ in a state, (varies from 50% - 85% of the vote), they are allocated all of that state’s delegates.
   b) Used in some Republican primaries and caucuses.

Question 9

What is ‘frontloading’?

Answer 9

FRONTLOADING

• The movement of primaries to an earlier point in the calendar in order to give more significance to a primary or caucus within a state.
• Seen with states moving them before New Hampshire and Iowa (which are normally happen first).
• So states later in the calendar have a greater say in the campaign process - Trump gained a majority on the 26th May 2016 despite 7 states not holding their primaries (including populous states such as California).

Question 10

What is ‘Super Tuesday’?

Answer 10

SUPER TUESDAY

• Due to frontloading, many primaries occur on the same day.
• ‘Super Tuesday’ usually occurs in March
• On the 3rd of March 2020, 14 primaries were held.
• The largest of these was in 2008 with ‘super-duper Tuesday due to 24 states holding primaries.

Question 11

What are National Party Conventions?

Answer 11

NATIONAL PARTY CONFERENCE

• A national convention of the Republican and Democratic parties in which they formally nominate their presidential candidate and affirm their party platform for the coming election.
• Following the disastrous Chicago Democrat convention in 1968 with riots on the Vietnam War, the McGovern-Fraser Commission was established to review the nomination process of the President which gave more significance to primaries and caucuses.

Question 12

What is the significance of National Party Conventions?

Answer 12

NATIONAL PARTY CONVENTIONS

1. Selecting the party candidates for the presidency
   a) While most party delegates are bound by party rules as to whom they have to vote for, this is still a process which takes place at conventions and formally acknowledges the party’s nominee for President and Vice President.
   - In the vote of delegates, a simple majority of votes cast is needed to approve a candidate.
   b) The official candidate is usually a foregone conclusion.
   - Most delegates are already pledged since the primaries.
   - Superdelegates (special delegates/nominated party officials) vote has more weight to it.
   - In 2016, Trump was approved with over 1,700 delegates (69.8%) on the first ballot, whilst Mitt Romney won over 90% in 2012.
2. Adopting the party platform and policies
   a) Theoretically, the party convention allows for discussion on, and amendments to, the party platform.
   - These are the principles and policy goals of a political party (manifesto).
   b) While parties do take into account their members’ view, the party convention today is little more than a rubber stamp for the platform.
   - Most party policy is created by ‘platform committees’ of each party in the days before conventions in collaboration with the presumptive nominee.
   - Platforms are then simply agreed to at the convention in a vote.
   - In 2016, it took just 6 minutes to confirm the Republican Party Platform
3. Selling the candidate
   a) As a multimillion-dollar event with extensive television coverage, the convention allows the candidate considerable media coverage, especially in their acceptance speech.
   - Obama’s 2007 speech had an audience of 39 million television viewers.
   b) In this speech, the nominee can talk directly to the voters and set out their campaign narrative.
   - Allow for the rising stars of the party to make their mark for future campaigns as Obama did in 2004.
4. Party Unity
   a) The invisible primary and primary season can be bruising.
   - Candidates from the same party battling it out for supremacy by often pointing out flaws in other candidates, thereby exposing divisions.
   b) The Convention affords an opportunity to repair some of this damage and prepare instead to compete against the opposing party rather than one another.
   - Having lost to Obama in 2008, Clinton opened her convention speech by saying that she was a ‘proud supporter of Barack Obama’.
   - Ted Cruz did not endorse Trump at the 2016 convention.
5. 2016 National Conventions
   a) Republican National Convention 2016
   - Many prominent Republicans did not attend with Trump gaining endorsements from low-profile losing primary candidates such as Chris Christe and Ben Carson.
   - Melania gave a speech but was accused of plagiarising Michelle Obama.
   - Ted Cruz snubbed Trump by urging voters to ‘vote your conscience’.
   - The platform opposed gay marriage.
   - Trump’s final speech appealed to his populist base, talking of immigration and his proposed Mexican wall giving him a 4% bounce in ratings (John Kerry did not get this bounce in 2004 despite unpopularity of George Bush).
   b) Democratic National Convention 2016
   - United convention with progressives such as Warren and Sanders and a highly supportive Obama and Bill Clinton.
   - Sanders supporters organised protests, accusing the DNC of bias as in the Nevada Primaries, Clinton won the majority of delegates in the 1st stage, yet Bernie won the 2nd stage after many failed to show up, yet the Democrats discredited these delegate and changed the rules.
   - Music stars such as Alicia Keys, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga played.
   - Rule change to reduce the role of superdelegates was adopted, with 2/3 of superdelegates bound to state results.
   - Clinton appealed to Trump’s key demographic support alongside other issues such as climate change in her speech.

Question 13

What is the significance of the Party Platform?

Answer 13

PARTY PLATFORM

• Manifesto for the nominated candidate to stand by.
• Usually very generic as to not alienate anybody.
• Exception of:
  a) Trump 2016 with nationalist pledges including a southern border wall.
  b) Barry Goldwater 1964 with right-wing mass privatisation and nuclear weapons (Beaten by L.B.Johnson).
  c) George McGovern 1972 with the housewives wage.

Question 14

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Primaries and Caucuses process?

Answer 14

PRIMARIES AND CAUCUSES

1. Advantages
   a) Raises key issues
   - ‘Idea factory’ with more ideas than from just 1 candidate.
   - Competition between candidates tests different policies.
   - Successful policies of losing candidates can be adopted by winning candidates.
   - Political education.
   b) Voter choice and democracy
   - Increased participation compared to a situation of no primary voting.
   - Choice of competing/ideologies/policies within a party.
   - Choice by social characteristic (race, gender…).
   - Especially true of open primaries states.
   c) Electability/proven candidates
   - Tests ability to overcome deficiencies/personal issues.
   - Proven candidates are more likely to win the Presidency.
   - Tests the ability to raise funds.
2. Disadvantages
   a) Internal divides in parties.
   - Exposes divisions.
   - People can lose faith in candidates.
   - Problematic if only one party has a primary.
   - Negative campaigning common, even within a party.
   - Can reduce the popularity of winning candidate.
   - EXAMPLE. Clinton was engulfed in sex scandals in 1991 as his campaign began (comeback kid).
   b) Specific Procedures
   - Creates low turnout and excludes certain voters.
   - Some states have dubious practices such as non-binding elections.
   - Different rules for different states.
   c) Timing.
   - Early states influence late states
   - Late states can be disenfranchised, rendering voting pointless.

Question 15

What is the significance of American Overseas Territories in Primaries/Caucuses?

Answer 15

AMERICAN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
- 5 American overseas territories (US Virgin Islands, Guan, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Northern Mariana Islands) are allowed to vote in Primaries but not Presidential elections.

Question 16

What are the different types of states in the election campaign?

Answer 16

STATES IN THE ELECTION CAMPAIGN

1. Battleground States
   - A state in which the candidate it will support is uncertain (swing state) and which therefore sees a lot of campaigning activities in order to win votes.
2. Bellwether States
   - A state which has historically tended to vote for the Presidential candidate, and therefore is of far more interest for candidates.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2016, 94% of events by either Trump, Pence, Clinton or Kaine took place in just 12 states, with Florida having 71 campaign events.

Question 17

What is the significance of televised debates in the election campaign?

Answer 17

TELEVISED DEBATES

• Since 1976, there has been an expectation for candidates to take part in televised debates against one another.
• Candidates polling at an average of 15% in national polls is eligible.
• Only meant that there have been two candidates (Democrats and Republicans with 3rd parties falling short).
• EXAMPLE. Even though Hilliary Clinton had ‘won’ each of the debates through measuring her polling she still lost the 2016 election.

Question 18

How happens on Election Day?

Answer 18

ELECTION DAY

1. Polls in November
   a) 50 State-wide elections, with the elector allocating votes from a state to elect a President and Vice-President.
   b) ECV allocate a winner takes it all basis (FPTP system) in all states except two.

Question 19

How does the Electoral College Vote function?

Answer 19

ELECTORAL COLLEGE VOTE

1. ECV
   a) Each state had a minimum of 3 ECVs as every state had at least 1 House Representative and 2 Senators.
   - As the HORs is representative to the population, the ECV was broadly proportional.
   - To win, you need at least 270 out of 538 ECV to win
   b) Faithful Electors
   - A person who is nominated to cast an ECV on behalf of their state.
   c) Rogue/Faithless Electors
   - A person who was nominated to cast an ECV on behalf of their state but who cast their ballot for someone other than whom their state voted for.
   - 30 states have laws that require their delegates to cast their vote for the candidate that won the state vote.
   - In 2016, there were 10 faithless electors, 3 had their vote invalidated as they broke state law and had to vote again, 7 successfully cast their ballot. in favour of other candidates.
   - Four faithless electors from Washington were each fined $1,000 for breaking their pledge in 2016.
   d) Winner takes all
   - Irrelevant of how much the candidate wins in the popular vote, Hilliary won 4 million more in California.
2. Different Voting methods and vote allocations used
   a) Colorado
   - Postal vote.
   - Winner-takes-all.
   b) Delaware
   - Digital voting with no paper trail.
   - Winner-takes-all.
   c) Maine
   - Paper ballot.
   - ECV 2 votes given to the state-wide winner, 1 vote given to the winner in each of Maine’s 2 Congressional districts.
   d) Nevada
   - Digital voting with a paper trail.
   - Winner-takes-all.
   e) Tennessee
   - A paper ballot, and digital voting without a paper trail.
   - Winner-takes-all.
   f) Utah
   - A paper ballot, and digital voting with a paper trail.
   - Winner-takes-all.
3. Butterfly Ballots in 2000
   a) Controversy with ballots having names down both sides and punching holes down the centre, making it difficult for people to work out how to vote for the preferred candidate.
   b) Supreme Court decided the election result in Bush v Gore 2000.

Question 20

Should the Electoral College Vote be reformed?

Answer 20

ELECTORAL COLLEGE REFORM

1. Yes
   a) In 2 of the last 5 Presidential elections, the winner of the popular vote has lost in the ECV, undermining modern principles of popular sovereignty and underlining the outdated nature of the constitution.
   - Clinton won 48% (66 million) in 2016 compared to Trumps 45.9% (63 million) - difference of nearly 3 million.
   b) Due to the vast criticism, several states have created the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact (NPVIC) in which members pledge all of their ECVs to the winner of the national popular vote, regardless of the outcome in their own state.
   - This has been adopted by 11 states and Washington DC, which represent 172 ECVs, it has passed through legislatures in a further 12 states.
   c) It effectively excludes 3rd parties from the electoral process as the ECVs are not allocated proportionally and 3rd party votes tend to be thinly spread across the nation.
   - Only 2 times when there has not been a clear winner of the EC (1800 and 1824).
   d) Small states are overrepresented in the EC.
   - California has 55 ECVs and a population of 40 million, Wyoming has 3 ECVs and a population of 500,000.
   - Meaning that each ECV exercised by Wyoming represents 195,000 whilst California ECVs represents 3 times as many people.
   - ECVs should be allocated by Congressional District rather than a state with proportionality.
   e) The bellwether states are overrepresented as it is their votes that can change the election, with a majority of states almost ignored throughout the electoral process.
   f) That faithless elector exists undermines the very basic principles of democracy. Reform is therefore needed to maintain legitimacy in US elections.
   - ECVs should ay least be automatically allocated.
2. No
   a) The ECVs ensures that small states remain represented.
   - With the US population concentrated in a few states, the role, culture and traditions of smaller states could be ignored without the EC.
   - It helps maintain federalism by allowing differing electoral procedures in each state.
   b) The EC guards against the tyranny of the majority nationally and protects low-turnout areas.
   - The Founding Fathers were not convinced about the wisdom of popular sovereignty and this indirect form of election disperses power away from the public.
   - In 2016, Minnesota had the highest turnout (74.2%) whilst Hawaii had the lowest (42.5%)
   c) There is no consensus on what should replace the Electoral College.
   - Slight reforms such as the proportional allocation of ECVs, to the abolition and replacement of it with a national popular vote.
   - Problematic given the difficulty of passing a constitutional amendment generally.
   d) Broadly, the EC has produced a clear winner.
   - Given the use of FPTP for US elections, the resulting 2-party system means the winner has a clear majority of ECVs and therefore has a strong mandate to govern.

Question 21

What is the significance of the incumbency seeking a second term in Presidential Elections and what are the advantages and disadvantages of this position?

Answer 21

INCUMBENCY

1. A sitting president up for re-election generally tends to win.
   a) In the last 57 Presidential elections, 32 have involved incumbents and 22 of those candidates have won.
   - A re-election rate of 68.7%.
   b) Exceptions of:
   - Ford who rose to office as Vice President following the discredited Nixon and the watergate scandal.
   - Jimmy Carter 1977-1981 was a one-term Presidency.
   - George Bush Snr lost to Bill Clinton in 1992 after raising taxes despite explicitly campaigning for no new taxes.
2. Incumbency Advantages
   a) Name Recognition and media attention
   - Can attract publicity and sell their message, with the Rose Garden strategy in which the President address the nation with media attention.
   - EXAMPLE. Obama’s speech on the death of US officials in Benghazi in 2012 highlighted his role as commander in chief at a time of national significance.
   - EXAMPLE. In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy hit the East coast of America, giving Obama media coverage to act ‘presidentially’ touring disaster-hit areas and being photographed with those affected whilst Romney faced media blackouts and controversy over his comment for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to be closed and then reviewing his comments.
   b) Electoral resources and executive experience
   - Incumbents can point to policy successes during their 1st term to broaden their appeal and demonstrate their ability to govern with a proven track record.
   - Can attract significant funding against competitors.
   - Incumbents usually outspend their opponents, Obama raised $750 million whilst Romney raised $450 million.
   - EXAMPLE. Clinton outraised the incumbent Bush in 1992, yet won.
   - EXAMPLE. Obama announced a policy shift in 2011, with the main withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan and the killing of Osama Bin Laden in 2011. Appointment of Hispanics to the SC and executive orders progressed his vote amongst this demographic.
   c) Lack of primary challenge
   - Incumbent Presidents do not face primary challenges so they do not have to spend time exposing the cracks and divisions within their own party and steamrolling an expensive/bitter campaign.
   - This creates party unity going into an election and reduces spending costs, leaving them with a ‘war chest’ to spend later on.
   - EXAMPLE. Trump has only had 4 opponents in 2020 primaries, with may drop out due to the failure of their campaigns (only 1 delegate has been confirmed to Bill Weld - a Libertarian).
3. Incumbency Disadvantages
   a) Name recognition and media attention
   - Others can exploit the media. Presidential television debates allow challengers to impress on voters, such as Reagan embarrassing Carter by asking if they were “better off than they were 4 years ago” and commenting “there you go again”.
   b) Electoral resources and executive experience
   - A double-edged sword, with Obama having to counter accusations over his failure of leadership in health care reform.
   - EXAMPLE. George Bush Snr’s failing economy and recession and famous campaign promise: “Read my lips: no new taxes” helped his demise.
   - Money does not guarantee success with Jeb Bush raising record sums and Clinton outspending Trump, especially with his Super PAC - ‘Right to Rise’ raising $87 million.
   c) Lack of primary challenge
   - Media focus and attention can often be focused on primaries of the opposing party, which may give the challenger the opportunity to show political strength (1992).

Question 22

How has America developed to be a 2 party system?

Answer 22

TWO PARTY SYSTEM

1. The Use of the Winner-takes-all
   a) Significantly disadvantages third parties as they are awarded nothing for coming anything other than first in a state or district.
   - Therefore, despite the threefold jump in a third-party vote in 2016 (Libertarian Party = 3.3% [4.5 million] and Green Party = 1.1% [1.5 million]).
2. The nature of America
   a) The federal nature and the guarantee of a state’s right to run its own election, make every election a small, single-seat election.
   - Using a winner-tales-all electoral system in itself causes a 2 party system; given that the USA effectively conducts a series of mini-elections on any election day, this problem is further exacerbated.
3. Party Ideology
   a) The 2 main US parties have such a breadth of ideology, it is therefore difficult for a 3rd party to carve out any distinct policy area that is not already covered.
   - If it were able to, it would not take much for one of the 2 main parties to simply assume this policy, a process known as co-optation.
   - Means that candidates running as independents also struggle to carve out a distinct policy platform.
4. The expense of Politics
   - US elections have become so expensive that the only parties able to really compete are those with money.
   - Smaller parties lack the financial muscle or membership to gain success, therefore reinforcing the 2 party system.
5. The electoral rules
   a) The rules of the Presidential debate serve to exclude 3rd parties which struggle to achieve the popularity needed in the polls.
   - This restricts their access to what amounts to free media and undermines their legitimacy as serious parties.

Question 23

How can third parties have indirect influence?

Answer 23

THIRD PARTIES

1. The Spoiler Effect
   a) When a 3rd party candidate helps to prevent one of the Democrat or Republican party from winning.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2000, Ralph Nader (Green Party candidate) may have prevented Al Gore (Democrat) from winning the Presidency by taking democrat voters away from Gore (Bush defeated Al Gore by 537 votes in Florida, with Nader receiving 97,000 votes).
2. Influencing the policy of Democratic or Republican Parties
   a) Ross Perot was the last 3rd party candidate to receive significant votes for his campaign in 1992 and 1996 as an independent.
   - At one point in June, Perot led the polls with 39% (versus 31% for Bush and 25% for Clinton in 1992).
   - He received 19% of the popular vote with 20 million votes but no ECVs.
   - The popular economic policy of a balanced budget was embraced by Republicans and accepted by Bill Clinton, with his policy being successfully executed.
3. Infiltrating the 2 main parties, using primaries to gain prominence within a party
   a) Trump and Bernie Sanders are both examples of 3rd party candidates using primaries to run under their banner, even though both parties oppose their bids.

Question 24

What legislation has shaped the role of campaign finance in elections?

Answer 24

CAMPAIGN FINANCE

1. 1971 - Federal Elections Campaign Act (FECA) passed
   - Lays out requirements for the disclosure of donations received by candidates (of over $100) and sets spending limits for candidates and their families ($50,000 for Presidential elections).
   - Also establishes matching funds with federal funding if a party received 5% or more of the vote in the election (used by Al Gore and John Kerry but not Bush in which meant that Gore was restrained by campaign expenditure limits).
2. 1974 - FECA is reformed after Watergate
   - The amendment creates the Federal Elections Commissions (FEC) to oversee and regulate election spending.
   - It limits individual donations to a single campaign to $1,000 (with a capped aggregate total of $25,000 to all federal campaigns) alongside limiting campaign spending.
3. 1976 - Buckley v Valeo in the SC
   - This ruling upholds the donation limits for elections but rules that spending caps amount to a violation of free speech.
4. 1979 - Congress amends FECA
   - Through further amendment of the Act, it allows for the development of soft money (money donated to a party rather than a candidate and used for ‘party-building activities’ rather than endorsements of a candidate directly.
   - It is not bound by campaign limits.
5. 2002 - Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act (McCain-Feingold reforms)
   - Bans soft money donations to national parties.
   - Raises individual contribution limits to $2,000 (hard money, direct to an electoral campaign) per candidate per election.
   - Corporations and labour unions are banned from funding issues advertisements.
   - Prohibits ‘electioneering communications’ referring to federal candidates within 60 days of a general election by corporations and labour unions.
   - ‘Stand by Your Ad’ (SBYA) provision requires candidates to endorse campaign adverts to discourage attack adverts or controversial claims.
6. 2010 - Citizens United v FEC
   - Effectively determines that money is free speech and therefore campaign limits placed on organisations are unconstitutional.
   - Gives rise to the creation of Super-PACs.
7. 2014 - McCutcheon v FEC
   - Rules that the aggregate cap placed on individuals limiting the number of candidates they can donate to within an election cycle is unconstitutional.

Question 25

Why has there been difficulty in achieving campaign finance reform?

Answer 25

CAMPAIGN FINANCE REFORM
1. Those in power have benefited from the system and therefore are reluctant to reform it.

2. There are loopholes to generate ‘soft-money’ with PACs, 527s and Super-PACs
3. The Supreme Court rulings on the 1st amendment make money interchangeable with free speech.
   - As the constitution is entrenched it is difficult to change, making SC rulings unrivalled.
   - Failed Sanders ‘Democracy for all’ amendment 2015.
4. Lack of consensus over what reform would look like (similar to ECVs).

Question 26

Is the Presidential election process effective?

Answer 26

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION PROCESS

1. Effective
   a) The lengthy process ensures that candidates are resilient enough to withstand the demands of being President.
   b) The EC has served to produce a clear winner able to govern effectively despite the split nature of US political opinion.
   c) The primary calendar ensures that the voice of smaller states is upheld, protecting the principle of federalism.
   d) The ability to attract large amounts of money speaks to the character and breadth of appeal of a candidate, making them more suited to the job.
   e) The expectation of an acceptance speech at the National Party Convention, plus a good performance in televised debates, highlight a skill that a good president would be expected to have - commanding and persuasive public speaking.
   f) It broadly works, controversies have been quickly overcome and Bush and Trump, who both won the ECV but not the popular vote, have been able to lead while being kept in check by opinion polls and Congress.
   g) . 3rd parties can have a role, whether in the share of the national vote (Ross Perot in 1992) or in trying to shape the debates of an election (Jill Stein and Gary Johnson in 2016).
   h) Primaries allow voters a genuine choice, neither Obama nor Trump were the frontrunners when the invisible primary began and yet they triumphed.
2. Ineffective
   a) The EC has proven to be increasingly out of step with popular sovereignty and therefore needs reform.
   b) The primaries calendar effectively disenfranchises some states while overrepresenting the views of others, thereby creating an uneven form of federalism.
   c) The expected Presidential televised debates have limited impact on the outcome of the election and are therefore a slideshow.
   d) The National Party Convention, while no longer taxpayer-funded, serves little democratic purpose for the voters at large.
   e) The amount of money required to become the President makes the process inherently elitist.
   f) The volume of money required also gives undue influence to interest groups and corporations over the voice of the general public.
   g) The length of the process creates political apathy amongst the voters, which can depress turnout and undermine the legitimacy of an election.
   h) The variety of different voting methods has been criticised and caused controversy over election results.
   i) In terms of actual power, 3rd parties are effectively excluded from the election, with the entire process creating a 2 party system in which the 3rd parties have little value.
   j) Increasingly the role of the media is more influential than money spent, and yet this area is relatively unregulated when it comes to elections.

Question 27

What is the history of the Republican and Democratic Parties, political spectrum and national infrastructure?

Answer 27

HISTORY

1. Founding fathers (Jefferson) shared an opinion that men by their constitutions are naturally divided into 2 parties.
   a) Madison shared this view in his Federalist Paper #10.
   b) Two sides:
   - Hamilton federalist’s favoured a strong national government and a relationship with England.
   - Jefferson and Madison’s Democratic-Republican party opposing them (the Republican Party was later founded in 1854).
2. Political Spectrum
   a) All of US politics is conducted within a conservative part of the ideological spectrum than in the UK.
   - Senator Susan Collins is a pro-choice moderate Republican.
   - Senator Jame Inhofe is a pro-choice far-right Republican.
3. National Infrastructure heads their respective parties, developing and promoting the party platform and organising fundraising.
   a) The Republican National Committee (RNC).
   - The head, Reince Priebus, refused to campaign with Trump, does that make Trump independent.
   b) The Democratic National Committee (DNC).

Question 28

What are the differences in general ideologies between the Republican and Democratic Parties?

Answer 28

IDEOLOGY

1. Democrats
   a) Generally liberal, believing in progressive rights and some level of government intervention in both social and economic policy.
   b) General ideological principles:
   - ‘An unerring belief that we can make America better’.
   - ‘Out of many, we are one’, a responsibility of society to ensure that government works for everyone.
   - A constitutional belief in liberty and equality for all.
   - Government intervention to ensure equality for all, in both the economy and social welfare.
   - Being strong enough to defend the nation while seeking peace.
   c) Support:
   - Women’s right to choose in the case of abortion.
   - Same-sex marriage.
   - A level of social welfare (healthcare).
   - Reform of immigration.
   - Pro-environmental policies.
   - Gun-control.
   - Larger government, even if that occasionally encroaches on states’ rights.
   - Access to free, or debt-free, education.
   - Abolishing the death penalty.
2. Republicans
   a) Generally conservative, believing in individual rights and a limited role for the government in the economy and social policy, although a larger role in homeland security.
   b) General ideological principles:
   - American exceptionalism (the USA is uniquely ‘free’).
   - The right of the individual, ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’.
   - An originalist interpretation of the Constitution.
   - Limited government, separation of powers and federalism.
   - Political freedom and economic freedom are invisible.
   - Being strong enough to defend the nation while seeking peace.
   c) Support:
   - Restrictions on provision of and funding of abortion.
   - Opposition to same-sex marriage.
   - Stricter immigration policy.
   - Pro-business policies.
   - Gun rights.
   - Smaller government to allow greater rights of individual states.
   - State- and parent-run education.
   - Tax cuts over the provision of social welfare including universal healthcare.
   - Death penalty.

Question 29

What are the differences between the Republican and Democratic Parties on Social and Moral issues (including social welfare)?

Answer 29

SOCIAL AND MORAL ISSUES

1. Democrats
   a) Death Penalty
   - To abolish the death penalty as it is a cruel and unusual form of punishment and ensure that the legal system is fair.
   b) Same-sex marriage
   - Support of recognising LGBTQ rights with the support in the repeal of the Defence of Marriage Act (DOMA) 1996 which was struck down in US v Windsor 2014.
   - EXAMPLE. Supported LGBT by including the right to be allowed to use the bathroom of their chosen gender (Republicans opposed this which led to Obama cutting federal funding to Republican-dominated North Carolina for its rejection of this right in 2016.
   c) Abortion
   - Women should have access to quality reproductive healthcare services, including safe and legal abortions.
   d) Environment
   - In 2016, they were committed to getting 50% of electricity from clean sources within a decade, with greenhouse gases priced to reflect their negative externalities.
   e) Guns
   - Expand and strengthen background checks and close dangerous loopholes in current laws, keeping weapons of war; assault weapons and large magazines off streets.
   f) Immigration
   - Believe a need to urgently fix the broken immigration system, creating paths for citizenship for law-abiding families.
   g) Healthcare
   - Healthcare is a right, not a privilege, and the healthcare should, therefore, put people before profits.
   - The Affordable Care Act 2010 was aimed at the 46 million Americans (typically on lower incomes) who did not have health insurance, with all Republicans voting against it.
   h) Education
   - Democrats are unified in their belief that every student should be able to attend college debt-free and working families should not have to pay any tuition to go to public colleges and universities.
2. Republicans
   a) Death Penalty
   - Condemn the SC erosion of the rights of the people to enact capital punishment as this is needed to combat the rising murder rate.
   b) Same-sex marriage
   - Traditional marriage and family, based on marriage between one man and one woman, is the foundation for a free society.
   - Condemn US v Windsor 2014 and pledge to uphold DOMA.
   c) Abortion
   - Assert the sanctity of human life and unfirm that the unborn child has a fundamental right to life.
   - Human life amendment to the constitution.
   - EXAMPLE. Partial-birth abortion ban Act 2003 was voted for unanimously by Republicans in Congress
   d) Environment
   - Support the development of all forms of energy that are marketable in a free economy without subsidies (coal, natural gas, nuclear power and hydropower).
   - Oppose any Carbon Tax.
   e) Guns
   - Support firearm reciprocity legislation, opposing ill-conceived laws that would restrict magazine capacity or ban the sale of the most popular and common modern rifle.
   f) Immigration
   - Highest priority is to secure borders and all ports of entry by enforcing immigration laws.
   g) Healthcare/welfare
   - Repeal Obamacare and give America a tax-cut, reducing mandates and enabling insurers and providers of care increase healthcare options and contain costs.
   - Republicans can understand the need for food stamps for those in financial difficulty but have pished for cuts in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), which gave $45 billion in food assistance to 43 million Americans in 2016. Paul Ryan’s 2016 poverty review proposed a $26-billion cut in food stamps over 10 years, despite Democrat Jim McGovern arguing that it keeps 5 million children out of poverty.
   h) Education
   - The federal government should not be in the business of originating student loans.
   - Give students access to a multitude of financing options instead to reduce costs, private sector participation in student finance should be restored.

Question 30

What are the differences between the Republican and Democratic Parties on Economic issues?

Answer 30

ECONOMIC ISSUES

1. Democrats
   a) Tax
   - Believe the wealthiest Americans and the largest corporations must pay taxes, removing tax breaks for companies that ship jobs overseas, eliminate tax breaks for oil and gas companies.
   b) Minimum wage
   - Raise the federal minimum wage to $15 an hour.
   - Give Americans the ability to join a union regardless of where they work.
   c) Banking
   - Wall Street needs to be regulated, gambling trillions in risky financial instruments whilst expecting the taxpayer to bail out business.
2. Republicans
   a) Tax
   - Republicans consider the establishment of pro-growth tax codes a moral imperative.
   - Where tax rate penalises investment, they must be lowered.
   b) Minimum wage
   - Should be handled at the state and local level.
   c) Banking
   - No financial institution is too big to fail.
   - Support legislation to ensure that the problems of any financial institution can be resolved through the bankruptcy code.

Question 31

What factors have limited the significance of parties in Congress?

Answer 31

FACTORS LIMITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PARTIES IN CONGRESS

1. Constituents
   a) In a short election cycle, Congressmen are mindful of the views of their constituencies as well and party.
   - True of primaries in the USA, which allow constituencies to control who makes it onto the ballot paper.
2. Congressional Caucuses
   a) These groups of Congressmen who share a specific common interest come together when voting on that issue, irrespective of party lines.
   - Women’s caucuses, Black caucus and Steel Caucus.
3. Interest Groups
   a) It would be rare that the role of an interest group would be the publicised reason a member of Congress voted against their party.
   - Age of expensive elections, the role of interest groups in funding both parties and individual candidates is crucial and can explain voting behaviour.
4. Bigtents
   a) Also known as a Broadchurch with a political party with a broad spectrum of factions.

Question 32

What are the different factions within the Democrat Party?

Answer 32

DEMOCRAT FACTIONS (Groups within a political party that share an ideological agreement that might be different to other groups within the same party)

1. Liberals
   a) Progressives radicals within the Democratic Party.
   b) Comfortable with Government intervention in the economy to achieve social justice.
   - Provisions of welfare, health and education for those who are disadvantaged and by increasing taxes on the wealthy.
   c) Anti-intervention abroad in the term of deploying the US military.
   - Anti-Iraq and opposed to plans for the US to arm Syrian rebels.
   d) Members include:
   - Bernie Sanders (advocated free education, reversing Citizens United and establishing universal healthcare through increased taxes).
   - Elizabeth Warren (2020 candidate. Opposed Obama’s Trans-Pacific Partnership trade deal 2015 which favours corporations over workers).
   - Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (28 years old = youngest Congresswoman. Defeated incumbent Congressman Joe Crowley in New York 14th district Democratic primary. Identified as Socialist).
2. Moderates
   a) Centre of the party and compromise in most situations.
   - Middle ground approach on social and economic issues.
   - More willing to reduce government-sponsored initiatives by supporting tax cuts and welfare reform.
   b) Faction is organised around the Democratic Leadership Council in 1985 as a reaction to a second defeat in Presidential elections with Ronald Reagan.
   - A moderate approach to success.
   - The group dissolved in 2011 but still remain dominant in the Democrat party.
   c) Members include:
   - Dianne Feinstein (California Senator opposes the death penalty although she did once support it. She does not support the government takeover of healthcare).
   - Charles Schumer.
3. Conservatives
   a) ‘Blue Dog Democrats’ and ‘DINO (Democrat in Name Only)’ is on the right of the party.
   - Not as dominant, with members uncommon.
   b) Tend to be socially and morally Conservative, but share agreement with Democrats on fiscal and economic policy.
   - EXAMPLE. American SAFE Act 2015, 47 House Democrats voted in favour of Republican-led measures to have an additional screening on Iraqi and Syrian refugees despite Obama’s opposition.
   c) Members include:
   - Joe Manchin (West Virginia Senator has advocated gun control despite his right-leaning state. He was the only democratic vote for Brett Kavanaugh in 2018. Danger amongst membership in times of partisanship. with Manchin suggested as a cabinet member for Trump).

Question 33

What are the different factions within the Republican Party?

Answer 33

REPUBLICAN FACTIONS

1. Moderates
   a) Favour more conservative fiscal policy; lower taxes and more business-friendly policies.
   b) Greater acceptance and tolerance of liberal views om the issues of rights
   - In 2018, 2 Republican House members opposed a provision which would ban abortion after 20 weeks.
   c) Referred to as ‘RINO (Republican in Name Only), members including:
   - Maine Senator Susan Collins was only one of 3 that supported Obama’s 2009 stimulus package budget (also supporting LGBT rights and attempted to compromise with Obama’s plans to increase the federal minimum wage).
   d) Organised into the Main Street Partnership, a caucus created in 1994 to react to the rise in Conservative Republicans.
   - Since 2016, moderates have created a larger group that the Freedom Caucus, yet have recently lost a lot of power.
2. Fiscal Conservatives
   a) Focus on the size and cost of government, keen to reduce its size to cut taxes and greater economic freedom.
   - Moral and social issues do not hold much significance.
   - Abolition of estate (inheritance) tax
   b) Supportive of Trump’s promises to free the economy from government regulation, lower taxes and renegotiated trade deals.
   c) Members include:
   - Newt Gingrich (1990s speaker who led the ‘Contract with America’, a manifesto focusing on economic responsibility and a balanced budget).
3. Social Conservatives
   a) Conservative protection of moral and social issues known as the ‘religious right’ or the ‘Christian right’.
   - Favouring. the death penalty and gun rights, opposing abortion and social welfare.
   - Freedom Caucus
   b) The debate of social and moral issues in 2018 which led to Government shutdowns twice.
   - Many opposed President Obama’s Deferred Action for Children Arrival (DACA).
   c) Members include:
   - Ted Cruz (21-hour filibuster in 2013 in opposition to Obamacare on an ideological, rather than cost, basis).

Question 34

What is the Freedom Caucus?

Answer 34

FREEDOM CAUCUS

1. Right-Wing Republicans in the House of Representatives.
   a) Formed in 2015.
   - 40 members with a ‘no compromise’ attitude.
   - Replaced the ‘Tea Party; as the main right-wing faction of the Republican Party.
   b) Vocal challenges to Obama’s immigration policy and fought to repeal the Affordable Care Act 2010.
   - In 2017, the Freedom Caucus attempted to exert influence over the Trump presidency by sending a list of 228 regulations that it wants to be removed (including environmental regulations, nutrition rules for school meals and corporate regulations).
   c) Members such as Speaker Boehner and successor Speaker Ryan both try to control this faction, but too disruptive so both speakers left this faction.
   - John Boehner resigned in 2015, having battled with the Freedom Caucus which considered him too moderate.
   - Paul Ryan took over the role of the speaker but retired and left the role in January 2018.

Question 35

What is the Coalition of Support for the Democratic Party?

Answer 35

DEMOCRATIC COALITION OF SUPPORT

1. Sex
   a) Women, since the 1980s, have voted in higher proportion than men.
   b) Women are increasingly likely to vote Democrats (50+%) - Perhaps due to the Democratic sympathy towards women’s issues and liberal policy on abortion, gender pay gap and employment equality.
   - EXAMPLE. Obama introduced the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act 2009 attempted to secure equal pay for women and was opposed to by almost all Republicans in Congress.
   - The democratic party has a greater representation of women through running candidates.
   - Dislikening of Conservative candidates such as Trump with his derogatory comments on women.
   - Pressure from men/patriarchy could explain why 41% of women still voted for Trump.
   c) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Clinton (41% Men, 54% Women).
   - 2012 = Obama (45% Men, 55% Women).
   - 2008 = Obama (49% Men, 56% Women).
   - 2004 = Kerry (44% Men, 51% Women).
2. Race
   a) The turnout of the two largest minority groups (Hispanics and African Americans) are typically lower than White American.
   b) African Americans are more likely to vote Democrat.
   - Championed for minority rights following Democrat President Johnson creating the Civil Rights Act 1964 and Voting Rights Act 1965 and affirmative action.
   - Obama effect with record black turnouts in 2008 and 2012.
   - The Democrats are more representative of these minorities.
   c) Hispanic support is volatile, with democrat support due to the stronger stance for equality and against discrimination.
   d) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Clinton (37% White, 89% African American, 66% Hispanic, 65% Asian).
   - 2012 = Obama (39% White, 93% African American, 71% Hispanic, 73% Asian).
   - 2008 = Obama (43% White, 95% African American, 67% Hispanic, 62% Asian).
   - 2004 = Kerry (41% White, 88% African American, 53% Hispanic, 56% Asian).
3. Age
   a) Younger voters tend to have liberal views due to the lack of commitments and limited financial dependency.
   b) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Clinton (55% Age 18-29, 45% Age 65+).
   - 2012 = Obama (60% Age 18-29, 44% Age 65+).
   - 2008 = Obama (66% Age 18-29, 45% Age 65+).
   - 2004 = Kerry (54% Age 18-29, 47% Age 65+).
4. Education and Income
   a) Education is commonly vired as part of ‘class’.
   - Yet a trend that those of a higher level of education are more likely to vote Democrat.
   - Education tends to produce more socially liberal values (tolerance).
   - Those with a college-level degree voted 9% more for Clinton than Trump.
   b) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Clinton (53% £100,000).
   - 2012 = Obama (60% £100,000).
   - 2008 = Obama (63% £100,000).
   - 2004 = Kerry (57% £100,000).
5. Religion
   a) Religion can often dictate moral and social issues.
   - Abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty and marriage laws all hold significance.
   - Jewish Americans support Democrats, traditionally being far more liberal in their views and sympathy towards oppressed minorities as well as not being fully supportive of the state of Israel.
   b) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Clinton (39% Protestant, 45% Catholic, 71% Jewish).
   - 2012 = Obama (42% Protestant, 50% Catholic, 69% Jewish).
   - 2008 = Obama (45% Protestant, 54% Catholic, 78% Jewish).
   - 2004 = Kerry (40% Protestant, 47% Catholic, 74% Jewish).

Question 36

What is the Coalition of Support for the Republican Party?

Answer 36

REPUBLICAN COALITION OF SUPPORT

1. Sex
   a) Men tend to overwhelmingly vote for Republican in a broad ideological sense that they are more conservative.
   - Although Women still vote Republican, perhaps due to bipartisan support for the Violence Against Women Act 1994.
   b) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Trump (52% Men, 41% Women).
   - 2012 = Romney (52% Men, 44% Women).
   - 2008 = McCain (48% Men, 43% Women).
   - 2004 = Bush (55% Men, 48% Women).
2. Race
   a) Strong support from White Americans with a significant minority supporting Republicans
   - For minorities, the Republicans are a toxic brand that has slowed the fight for equality.
   - Immigration policies have prevented Hispanics from voting Republican.
   - However, many Hispanics are social conservatives against abortion and gay marriage, or even many who have fled Cuba and support a hardline approach to Fidel Castro (Marco Rubio).
   - Rapper Kayne West has been positive about Donald Trump yet perhaps for personal gain to promote his new music.
   b) Voting history
   - 2016 = Trump (57% White, 8% African American, 28% Hispanic, 27% Asian).
   - 2012 = Romney (59% White, 6% African American, 27% Hispanic, 26% Asian).
   - 2008 = McCain (55% White, 4% African American, 31% Hispanic, 35% Asian).
   - 2004 = Bush (58% White, 11% African American, 44% Hispanic, 43% Asian).
3. Age
   a) Value of tradtional values and the conservation of society develops through age.
   b) Voting history
   - 2016 = Trump (36% Age 18-29, 52% Age 65+).
   - 2012 = Romney (37% Age 18-29, 56% Age 65+).
   - 2008 = McCain (32% Age 18-29, 53% Age 65+).
   - 2004 = Bush (46% Age 18-29, 52% Age 65+).
4. Education and Income
   a) Those of a lower educational ability (without a college-level degree) are more likely to vote Republicans.
   - White-working class uneducated population were more favourable to Trump that Clinton in 2016 with a populist anti-elitist agenda.
   b) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Trump (41% £100,000).
   - 2012 = Romney (38% £100,000).
   - 2008 = McCain (35% £100,000).
   - 2004 = Bush (42% £100,000).
5. Religion
   a) Religion dictates views on social and moral issues.
   - Protestants are Republican voters, with Congressional members of the social conservatives supporting the views that these voters hold, especially evangelicals (bible-belt).
   - Catholics are less predictable although they tend to be supportive of Republicans.
   b) Voting history:
   - 2016 = Trump (58% Protestant, 52% Catholic, 24% Jewish).
   - 2012 = Romney (57% Protestant, 48% Catholic, 30% Jewish).
   - 2008 = McCain (54% Protestant, 45% Catholic, 21% Jewish).
   - 2004 = Bush (59% Protestant, 52% Catholic, 25% Jewish).

Question 37

What are the different types and significance of Interest Groups in America with examples of each?

Answer 37

AMERICAN INTEREST GROUPS

1. Single-issue interest groups
   a) An interest group that tries to gain influence over a specific issue that is very narrow in its scope.
   - Campaigns are in a small area within government policy.
   b) EXAMPLE. National Rifle Asociation (NRA) fights for the rights of gun owners in the USA.
   - In DC v Heller 2008, the NRA campaigned over the storage of weapons.
   - Campaigned against the restriction on magazine capacity and against assault rifle bans,
   - After the Las Vegas mass shooting at the ‘Route 91 Harvest festival 2017’ which claimed 58 lives, there was a national debate about regulating ‘bump stocks’ (which have a higher rate of fire from semi-automatic weapons), yet the NRA protested under the protection of the 2nd amendment.
   c) EXAMPLE. NARAL is a pro-choice group that organised mass protests against the appointment of Brett Kavanaugh to the SC.
   - It also occupied the state office of Chuck Grassley in Iowa and stormed the Senate and offices of Senators Donnelly, Murkowski, Corker and Grassley to lodge its objections to Kavanaugh.
   - Gaining media headlines on MSNBC.
2. Professional interest groups
   a) An interest (sectional) group that represents the economic interests of its members/industry in government legislation. Often these are professional associations.
   b) EXAMPLE. The American Farm Bureau Federation represents farmers across America.
   - Greater than just agriculture policy, campaigning on immigration reform, tax and energy.
   - Represents a professional section of society and industry
   c) EXAMPLE. American Medical Association.
   - This industry is the biggest collective spender in Washington lobbying with over $2 billion over the last decade.
   - Most influence is unseen to the public.
   - In deciding what drugs will and will not be funded, and preventing cheap oversea competitors, the money allows companies the freedom of charging what it likes for drugs provided in Medicare and Medicaid.
3. Policy interest groups
   a) A. interest group with a greater breadth over the area of policy that it wants to influence.
   - Likely to represent issues such as the environment or foreign policy.
   - Members may not be direct beneficiaries of any successes the group might have, but they share an ideological belief in their goals.
   b) EXAMPLE. Environment America.
   - Contests influence over the whole government policy concerning the environment, including renewable energy and global warming to wildlife conservation to clean air and water.
   c) EXAMPLE. American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC).
   - Looks to promote the relationship between the USA and Israel alongside campaigning for other Middle Eastern concerns (Syrian War and defence issues).
   - Could also be classed as a professional group as it represents Jewish community interests.
   - EXAMPLE. Wanted to overturn the 2015 Iran Peace Deal by lobbying key Democrats such as Chuck Schumer (who later opposed the deal after AIPAC despatched 60 activists).
   d) EXAMPLE. The League of Conservation Voters (LCV).
   - Opposed the Keystone XL Pipeline from Alberta, Canada to Houston, Texas.
   - Spent millions on adverts advocating for and against candidates in the 2010 election cycle.
   - Nonetheless, it only stopped in Congress in 2015 by a Presidential veto.
   - Yet in 2017, Trump allowed the project to advance once more.
   - Trademark in campaigns is ‘The Dirty Dozen’ by selecting campaigns against 12 politicians due to their harmful environmental policies.
   - In 2012, 11/12 were defeated.
   - In 2014, 7/12 were defeated.
   - In 2016, 4/12 were defeated.

Question 38

What are the resources of Interest Groups?

Answer 38

INTEREST GROUPS RESOURCES

1. Money
   a) Groups with large amounts of money will be capable of contributing to election campaigns, hire expensive lobbyists and organise grassroots campaigns more effectively.
   - Money can be made from a few donors or vast memberships, without money it can be difficult to sustain influence.
   b) The NRA was able to spend $5 million on lobbying in 2017
   - Contributing over $700,000 to electoral campaigns in 2018.
2. Membership
   a) The larger a group is, the more likely it is to have influence due to the short election cycles in America.
   - Means groups can mobilise many voters which can pose a significant threat to a member of Congress up for re-election.
   - The expertise of members can shape campaigns; lawyers or professional experts.
   b) The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO).
   - The largest trade union with 12 million members.
   - Close links to the Democrat party.
   - Its president Richard Trumka, visited the White House 6 times in Obama’s first 6 months as well as in 2016 over concerns the Affordable Healthcare Act 2010, of which it strongly supported.
   - Effective in election time by organising volunteers to influence electoral outcomes.
   - Conflict with Obama over the signing of the TPP, saying that it threatened US jobs.
   - In 2016, the AFL-CIO campaigned against Trump in marginal states such as Florida, where 120,000 anti-Trump leaflets were distributed.
3. Access
   a) A group that contains contacts, or the support of, a politician is more likely to be heard.
   - Revolving door syndrome (It may be through retired members of Congress or former congressional staff members/advisors moving into these groups).
   - More relevant to professional groups and lobbying groups.
   b) In 2018, 340 former congressional staff worked for pharmaceutical groups or their lobbying firms.
   - This offers them valuable information and influence on the legislative process as well as bringing them access to the people they used to work with.
   c) Unlimited access to the media.
   d) Many are located on K Street in Washington.

Question 39

Why are Interest Groups so significant?

Answer 39

SIGNIFICANCE OF INTEREST GROUPS

1. Group rights are protected
   a) Even extremist groups have protected rights.
   b) Protects and promotes interest group activity.
   c) SC can provide longer-term success for interest groups relatively cheaply.
   d) The US has a strong level of rights protection due to an entrenched, sovereign Constitution which protects rights, even for extremist groups.
   e) Some groups have their aims enshrined in the Constitution.
   f) The 1st amendment promotes freedom of expression and association.
2. There are many access points
   a) Caused by the separation of powers and federalism creating many centres of power.
   b) The US has lots of access points or centres of power which groups can influence.
   c) Interests groups can choose a receptive institution.
   d) Failure with one institution does not mean overall failure.
3. Politicians are open to persuasion
   a) Parties and party leaders are weak, finding it hard to control politicians in their party.
   b) Groups try to expose/utilise this.
   c) Politicians are therefore open to persuasion by interest groups.
   d) Individuals in Congress can and do vote against the party line.
   e) Individual voting record in Congress is important in elections.
4. Elections are numerous and frequent
   a) Interest group money is important in elections (since Citizens United).
   b) Gives a strong opportunity for groups to exploit this and influence electoral outcomes.
   c) Congresspersons and 1/3rd of Senators are elected every 2 years.
   d) There is a huge range of elected offices.

Question 40

What is Logrolling?

Answer 40

LOGROLLING
- The exchange of support or favours, especially by legislators for mutual political gain as by voting for each other’s bills.

Question 41

What are the tactics used by Interest Groups?

Answer 41

INTEREST GROUPS TACTICS

1. Lobbying
   a) A multimillion-dollar professional industry with lobbyists or lobbying firms hired by groups to influence legislative outcomes of Congress.
   - Grown important in national politics with a series of high-profile lobbying companies found on K Street in Washington.
   - EXAMPLE. When John Boehner left his role in Congress, he took on a job at Squire Patton Boggs as a ‘strategic advisor’ (revolving door syndrome) which lobbies for major clients such as Amazon, AT&T, Goldman Sachs and the Turkish Government.
   b) Multifaceted methods:
   - Arranging meetings with members of Congress to convince them of your arguments.
   - Drafting legislation and winning a Congressional sponsor to introduce it to Congress.
   c) Provision of information to Congress to change or create favourable legislation.
   - Presidential cabinet appointments are a frequent target for these groups as they can influence their appointment, ejection, or build a relationship with the candidate to influence them once appointed.
   - At Trump’s hearing for attorney general (Jeff Sessions) in 2017, the NAACP and the National Fraternal Order of the Police gave evidence on his credentials for the role.
   d) EXAMPLE. Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act 2010
   - Placed regulation on the financial industry following the 2007-08 economic crash.
   - Yet in 2013, a bill passed the House that would have repealed parts of the Dodd-Frank Act; allowing banks to use savers’ money to trade in things such as stocks.
   - The language used was identical to language suggested by lobbyists of Citigroup.
   e) NRA Institute for Legislative Action (NRA-ILA)
   - Lobbying arm within its structure.
   - Wayne LaPierre is the CEO and executive vice president of the NRA.
   - Also listed as a lobbyist on open secrets, which tracks spending in US Politics, lobbying the 115th Congress.
   - In 2013, Wayne has evidence to Congress on gun control, advocating better education about gun safety in schools following Sandy Hook.
   - Advocated the proper enforcement of existing firearms laws rather than additional ones.
2. Report Cards
   a) Place pressure on politicians by issuing annual report cards on them.
   - Ranking Congressmen on how well they have supported an issue with their voting record and publicising it to the membership of an interest group and media.
   b) May have no direct effect, but places a high value on specific issues, which could cost politicians votes.
   - Senator Bernie Sanders was given a D- in 2016 by the NRA whilst running for President.
   - Politico wrote that he was wearing his ‘bad grade as a badge of honour’.
3. Campaign Finance and Electioneering
   a) Interest groups can gain influence through the donation of funds, publicity or canvassing.
   b) Direct donations are limited by campaign finance legislation.
   - EXAMPLE. The NRA spent $700,000 in 2018, with only 3 democrats receiving money from it with the maximum donated to these candidates less than $10,000.
   - Cost of winning a Senate seat in 2016 was $10 million, direct contributions can therefore only have a limited impact.
   c) Electioneering is to take part in a political campaign.
   - Interest groups can endorse candidates.
   - NARAL (pro-choice) has a list of candidates of which it endorses on its website.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2018, the NRA publicly advocated against the re-election of Joe Manchin (Democrat) due to his stance on gun control and report card score of D.
4. Grassroots Activity
   a) Organised protests are simple but visually effective forms of action.
   - The concentration of people to voice their opinion gains media attention and demonstrate the depth of public support.
   - EXAMPLE. The American Federation of Teachers protested against underfunded schools and the removal of their pension in 2018, yet in Texas, they had to stop their strike action as teachers can lose their teaching certificate as they are not allowed to strike under state law (state law can be restrictive).
   b) Also achieved through encouraging members to email and write to their members of Congress to express their opinion.
   - Using ‘Zipcode engines’ to find Congressmen address’.
   - Social media/twitter has mobilised this, with groups ‘cancelling’ candidacies.
   c) EXAMPLE. The NRA published videos attacking Conservative Democrat Joe Manchin for his stance on Gun Control.
   - In 2013, they urged members to contact him directly to stand by his 2010 campaign promises in which he pledged to protect the 2nd amendment but then supported criminal background checks.
   - A similar case in 2018 by urging his defeat in the impending elections.
   d) Some states require signatures to get an initiative on a ballot (13,000 to 300,000 names) with a referendum on initiatives in the state.
   - Some companies will employ people to acquire the necessary signature with a ‘price per signature’.
   - In 2017, the lowest cost of a petition signature was $0.02 whilst the largest was $43.97.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2016, the Marijuana Policy Project (MPP) collected 200,000 signatures to get Proposition 205 on the ballot in the election yet the initiative was defeated by 51% to 49%.
5. Legal Methods
   a) If they have significant amounts of money and the legal reason, interest groups can launch court cases to advance their cause, through:
   - Litigation by initiating cases by taking something to the court.
   - Amicus Curiae Briefs to provide information during a case.
   - By influencing SC nominations through lobbying.
   b) Some groups such as the NRA are supported Constitutionally such as in DC v Heller 2008 which ruled that the 2nd amendment gives an individual a right to a gun.
   - Citizens United challenged the FEC campaign finance laws.
   - The Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action challenged Michigan’s ban on Affirmative Action.
6. Publicity
   a) May. use publicity to change public opinion and influence voting behaviour.
   - Interest groups can run advertising campaigns.
   - The NRA used television adverts to stop Obama and Congress from passing new gun regulations after Sandy Hook 2012 calling Obama an ‘elitist hypocrite’ as his children had armed guards while at school.

Question 42

In what ways can Interest Groups influence the 3 branches of Government?

Answer 42

INTEREST GROUPS INFLUENCE ON GOVERNMENT

1. Congress
   - Lobbying congressmen, congressional leaders or committee chairs.
   - Proposing legislation.
   - Giving evidence in Congress.
   - Record cards.
   - Campaign donations.
   - Attacking/endorsing adverts (electioneering).
   - Organising grassroots activism.
   - Protesting.
2. President
   - Lobbying.
   - Campaign donations, with Super PACs involved in raising funds and generating publicity.
   - Attacking/endorsing adverts (electioneering).
   - Protesting.
3. Supreme Court
   - Bringing a case to the SC (Litigation).
   - Submitting Amicus Curiae Briefs.
   - Some groups have a direct role in the nominations of justices (ABA) and other lobbying on this issue.

Question 43

To what degree are Interest Groups good for democracy in America?

Answer 43

INTEREST GROUPS IMPACT ON DEMOCRACY

1. Good for Democracy
   a) Representation
   - Interest groups can represent minority groups and interests, which might be ignored or overlooked in a ‘winner-takes-all system’.
   - Interest groups can encourage their members to turn out in elections.
   b) Liberal
   - Interest groups can raise issues and campaign for protected rights, including bringing cases to the SC, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) specialising in rights protection with a 37 page Amicus Brief in Snyder v Phelps 2011, involving homophobic demonstrations at funerals (Westboro Baptist Church).
   - Interest groups can raise issues that hold the government to account, thereby limiting their power. The NAACP protect voting rights by checking politicians who want to change electoral laws to reduce black people’s ability to vote.
   - A wide range of interest groups on directly competing for issues is tolerated.
   c) Pluralist
   - The nature of US politics gives interest groups a greater number of access points, dispersing power.
   - Smaller interest groups have had success in gaining national attention for their issues, even if not in managing to achieve legislative change, through grassroots campaigns.
   - The issues raised by interest groups provide an important link between the people and government and ensure the government is responsive.
2. Bad for Democracy
   a) Representation
   - They can undermine the power of legitimately elected local representatives. AARP (Pensioners interest group with 40 million members) and Health Insurance companies lined up to stop Obama passing his Affordable Health Care Act it undermine democracy.
   - The power of interest groups over the legislature can work in the interest of the majority which could lead to the marginalisation of other groups.
   - Revolving door syndrome can mean that there is a near-corrupt closed network of decision making which could promote elitism.
   b) Liberal
   - Free and fair elections can be undermined by the money that interest groups pump into elections.
   - Tolerance of more extremist groups can appear to undermine the rights of other groups.
   - Interest groups that use illegal methods undermine the rule of law with illegal activity and violence by damaging property or life.
   c) Pluralist
   - Interest groups with more money seem to have disproportionate amounts of influence.
   - The same interest groups annually seem to retain influence over the political process.
   - The focus of interest group activity in Washington DC centralises elitist power.