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Bioc 192 > 35-38 > Flashcards

35-38 Flashcards

1
Q

what is stored instead of ATP?

A

fuels to maintain a supply of glucose between meals to provide immediate feul for increased activity, and for long periods when food intake may be adequate

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2
Q

what does fat storage consist of?

A

TAG

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3
Q

how is TAG stored in adipose tissues?

A

in droplets

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4
Q

what is the limit to fat storage?

A

there is no limit, its un limited

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5
Q

what is the structure of TAG?

A

3 fatty acids and 1 glyclerol

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6
Q

where does the fatty acids and the glycerol for TAG come from?

A

chylomicrons for fatty acids
the backbone of glucose is for the glycerol

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7
Q

what does the activation of fatty acids go to?

A

acetyl-CoA

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8
Q

what does the esterfication of acyl groups of TAG go to?

A

glycerol 3-phosphates

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9
Q

what stimulates the reaction of turning the acyl groups into glycerol 3-phosphate?

A

insulin

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10
Q

what stimulates the lipoprotein lipase in the capillaries of adipose tissues?

A

insulin

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11
Q

what is the process for the formation of glycerol?

A

glycolysis
when DHAP is converted to glycerol-P by the glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme
glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase and phosphatidate phosphatase followed by diacylglycerol acyltransferase

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12
Q

what catalyses the hydrolysis of TAG?

A

hormone-sensitive lipase
this is stimulated by adrenaline and glucagon hormones
this releases FFA and glycerol

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13
Q

what is the structure of glycogen?

A

a branched polysaccaride with (a) 1-4 and (a) 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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14
Q

where is glycogen stored?

A

in the liver and mucsles and has granules in cytoplasm

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15
Q

where does glycogen synthesis occur?

A

mainly in liver and muscle immediatly after a meal

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16
Q

what does glycogen synthesis require?

A

energy inputs (ATP and UTP)
has help from glycogen synthase and branching enzymes

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17
Q

what stimulates the glycogen synthesis?

A

insulin

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18
Q

what does hexokinase use ATP for?

A

to turn glucose to glucose 6-P

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19
Q

what doe glucose 6-P do?

A

traps glucose in the cell

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20
Q

what does mutase do?

A

doesnt require ATP
turns glucose 6-P to glucose 1-P and is reversible

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21
Q

how does glucose 1-P go to UDP-glucose?

A

using UTP which goes to PPi

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22
Q

what is UDP-glucose reactive with?

A

glycogen (n) which will form glucogen (n+1) and release UDP
glycogen (n+1) is the new glycosidic bond

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23
Q

waht is excess glucose converted into?

A

acetyl-CoA and then into fatty acids by the FA synthase complex in liver cytosol

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24
Q

what is liver glucogen released to?

A

as glucose into the blood for the brain

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25
Q

what does muscle glycogen do?

A

releases feul for glycolysis within muscle cells

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26
Q

what is excess glucose carbon converted into and where?

A

fatty acids and occurs mainly in the liver

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27
Q

what is the process for glucose carbon converted into fatty acids?

A

it is an energy-requiring process
its exported as TAGs in VLDL
it is stimulated by insulin

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28
Q

what feuls can the brain use?

A

glucose and not fatty acids

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29
Q

what feul does RBCs use?

A

glucose

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30
Q

what feul does the liver use?

A

mainly fatty acids

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31
Q

what feul does the heart use?

A

mainly fatty acids

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32
Q

how much glucose do we need to supply the brain with each day?

A

120g

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33
Q

why do we need to conserve as miuch protein as possible?

A

to maintain structure and functions, so we dont wanna start breaking down our muscles

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34
Q

what is glycogen?

A

is a polypeptide hormone that is produced by pancreatic (a) cells when the blood glucose drops

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35
Q

how much fat does the average person have?

A

15 kilos

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36
Q

how long can 15 kilos of fat produce energy for in a person?

A

around 40 days

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37
Q

what does glycogen stimulate?

A

lipolysis

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38
Q

what does fatty acids feul?

A

all aerobic tissues except the brain

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39
Q

how much energy does fat produce?

A

38kJ/g

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40
Q

what is the highest source of energy?

A

fat

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41
Q

how much kJ a day does the average person expends?

A

10000 for someone that weights 10kg

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42
Q

how much glucose does the liver give the brain each day?

A

around 20g

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43
Q

what is the bodies reserve glucose?

A

liver glycogen that we use first when we are starving

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44
Q

what does glycogen do to the liver?

A

stimulates the breakdown of glucogen in the liver and mobilizes it back to glucose which can provide enough glucose to the brain for one day

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45
Q

what is the structure og glycogen phosphorylase?

A

a debranching enzyme

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46
Q

what regulates the glycogenesis?

A

glycogen

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47
Q

what is the glycogenesis in the liver?

A

the liver takes a phosphate off the glucose 6-phosphate which makes the glucose be able to cross into the blood and can reach our required amount of glucose in the brain for one day

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48
Q

what is glucneogenesis?

A

the formation of glucose that occurs mainly in the liver and also the kidney cortex

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49
Q

what does the synthesis of glucose come from?

A

lactate from muscle glycogen, alanine from muscle protein and glycerol from adipose tissue (TAG)

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50
Q

what is alanine?

A

amino acids which can be used to stop the breakdown of proteins within the body

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51
Q

what stimulates alanine?

A

glycogen

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52
Q

what does fatty acid oxidation require?

A

energy

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53
Q

what does fatty acids do when it comes to gluconeogenesis?

A

cannot be used to make glucose but the B-oxidation provides ATP and NADH which can be used in gluconeogenesis

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54
Q

where does alanine come from?

A

muscle tissue

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55
Q

where does lactate come from?

A

RBCs

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56
Q

where does glycerol come from?

A

adipose tissue

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57
Q

what does the liver need to make glucose?

A

alanine, lactate, glycerol and glycogen which turns it into glucose

58
Q

what happens to some proteins when amino acids are needed?

A

they are degraded to amino acids to make glucose

59
Q

where are ketone bodies synthesised?

A

in the liver

60
Q

what are ketone bodies used for?

A

they can be used as an energy source for the brain

61
Q

what is the structure of the ketone bodies?

A

short molecules that are made into acetyl-CoA which works in conjuction with the glucose to produce energy for the brain to function

62
Q

when does the brain use ketone bodies?

A

when it is starving

63
Q

what happens if we dont reach the required glucose for the day?

A

then we start using alanine from muscles which over time the breakdown can lead to death

64
Q

what are the metabolic adaptations to starvation?

A

fatty acids are used by all aerobic tissues except the brain, ketone bodies can be used by the brain to slow down the rate at which we need to breakdown our proteins so the body can last longer

65
Q

how much ATP is enough for 1 second of muscle contractions?

A

5umol/g

66
Q

what is anaerobic exercise?

A

high intensity, rapid generation of force, short periods

67
Q

what is aerobic exercise?

A

steady supply of ATP at low intensity, prolonged, sustained exercise

68
Q

what type of exercise do most activities require?

A

a bit of both

69
Q

what type of exercise is used the longer you exercise?

A

the more aerobic is used but there is still some anaerobic exercise

70
Q

how does anaerobic exercise generate ATP?

A

it doesnt use oxygen so it generates it through phosphocreatine and glycogen

71
Q

how does aerobic exercise generate ATP?

A

requires oxygen and uses the process oxidation of glucose and fatty acids to produce ATP

72
Q

what is phosphocreatine?

A

an on-site, fast fuel
it has about 20 umol/g muscle which allows us to go for about 10 seconds
its a high energy phosphate compound

73
Q

how does phosphocreatine work?

A

the phosphate can be transferred to ADP to make ATP
its an energy buffering system

74
Q

what phosphorylizes the creatine?

A

creatine kinase

75
Q

what happens if we have too much creatine?

A

the body the turns it into creatinine which is then excreted through the urinary system

76
Q

what does creatine do for the body?

A

gives us the ability to do more work in the muscles

77
Q

what is glycogen in muscles?

A

an on-site store of glucose in the muscle

78
Q

what does glycogen do in the body?

A

mobilzed to glucose 1-phosphate by glycogen phosphorylase wich cleaves off and gives us glucose 1-phosphate
this is then converted into glucose 6-phosphate which is the feul for anaerobic glycolysis to go into pyruvate

79
Q

what can the making of alot of glucose 1-phosphate lead to?

A

a build up of lactic acid

80
Q

what is anaerobic glycolysis?

A

the muscle glycogen source of feul and oxygen is not required
ATP is generated by substrate-level-phosphorylation

81
Q

what is pyruvate reduced to?

A

lactate to regenerate NAD+ which allows us to keep glycolysis going

82
Q

what can lactic acid lead to?

A

muscle pH drops thus fatigue

83
Q

what are some factors that regulate glycolysis in exercising muscles?

A

glycogen mobilisation is stimulated by Ca+ and adrenaline
phosphofructokinase activity

84
Q

what does Ca+ do in glycolysis?

A

it binds to phosphorylase kinase to help glycogen mobilisation and can help with muscle contractions

85
Q

what is phosphofructokinase activity in glycolysis regulation?

A

its increased by allosteric regulators (+AMP, +Pi)

86
Q

what can adrenaline kinase turn ADP+ADP into?

A

ATP+AMP

87
Q

what is aerobic generation of ATP?

A

oxidation of glucose and fatty acids
this involves an active CAC, ETC of oxidative phosphorylation

88
Q

what does carnitine help with?

A

moving fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane for metabolization

89
Q

what is aerobic?

A

type I fiber property, slow speed of contraction, high endurance, high capillary density, high mitochondrial density and an oxidative metabilc character

90
Q

what is anaerobic?

A

type II fiber property, fast speed of contractions, low endurance, low mitochoindrial density, high glycogenolytic enzyme activity, high glycolytic enzyme activity and a glycolytic metabolic character

91
Q

what are muscle adaptations to enduarance training?

A

selective hypertrophy of type I fibers
increased number of blood capillaries per muscle fiber
increased myoglobin content per unit of tissue
increased size and number of mitochondria
increased cristae
increased capacity of mitochondria to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation
increased capacity to oxidise lipids to make more ATP and carbohydrates

92
Q

what is EPO doping?

A

a performance enhancing drugs
it increases RBC count and gives you more oxygen

93
Q

what is EPO?

A

erthropoeitin

94
Q

what does anaerobic steriods give us?

A

more muscle

95
Q

what do growth factors give us?

A

more muscle

96
Q

what does myostatin do?

A

tells the body to stop making muscle

97
Q

what happens if we turn the myostatin off?

A

then our bodies will make more muscle

98
Q

what are some symptoms of diabetes?

A

fatigue, weight loss, intense thirst, frequent urination, hyperglycaemia, glucosuria and ketones

99
Q

how many types of diabetes are there?

A

2

100
Q

what is type 1 diabetes?

A

an auto immune destruction of B-cells
its onset between ages 1-25 years
its due to genetic and enviromental factors

101
Q

what is the treatment for type 1 diabetes?

A

insulin injections

102
Q

what is type 2 diabetes?

A

resistance to action of insulin
onsets from 45 and onwards years
people are obese
its due to genetivc and enviromental factors

103
Q

what is the treatment for type 2 diabetes?

A

dieting, exercise and drugs

104
Q

what happens if our blood glucose levels get too low?

A

sweating, heartbeat increases and sympathetic nervous system may induce vomiting

105
Q

what happens if the blood glucose levels get too high?

A

we start the non-enzymatic glycation of protein which gets modified proteins that can become compromised and can lead to implications of the capillaries and other areas of the body
can also lead to constriction of blood vessels that leads to gangrene and limb amputation

106
Q

where is insulin secreted from?

A

B-cells in the pancreas

107
Q

what is insulin?

A

a peptide hormone secreted in response to high glucose (after a meal) which can drive the uptake of glucose into the tissues

108
Q

what does insulin work on?

A

liver, muscle and adipose tissue

109
Q

what pathways are effected in type 1 diabetes?

A

all pathways

110
Q

what pathways are effected in type 2 diabetes?

A

only some
these could include metabolism, DNA/RNA/protein synthesis, glycogen synthesis

111
Q

what is anti catabolic?

A

inhibition

112
Q

what is anabolic?

A

activation that leads to uptake of feuls

113
Q

what ar ethe metabolic consequences of a lack of insulin?

A

impaired glucose uptake and storage by muscles and liver, increased mobilisation of glycogen for more glucose in the blood, increased glucose synthesis, increased lipolysis, increased ketone body synthesis, reduced removal of TAG from the blood, increased breakdown of tissue protein which leads to weight loss

114
Q

what happens if the body thinks its getting less glucose?

A

then it starts breaking down proteins and we have weight loss
this is like a starving reaction

115
Q

what can the build up of ketone bodies in the blood lead to?

A

they can be very acidic and can lead to acidosis

116
Q

what goes up as B-oxidation increases?

A

the amount of ketone bodies

117
Q

what is the insulin injections?

A

from recombinant human insulin to mimic the normal rise in insulin caused by a meal

118
Q

what causes hypoglycaemia?

A

too much insulin and can lead to a coma if the glucose levels in the blood gets too low

119
Q

what is BMI?

A

the body mass index

120
Q

how is BMI calculated?

A

weight (kg)
(over)
height (squared) (m)

121
Q

what if someones BMI is greater than 30?

A

the person is obese

122
Q

what if someones BMI is between 30-25?

A

then they are overweight

123
Q

what if someones BMI is between 25-20?

A

then the person is a healthy weight

124
Q

what if someones BMI is less than 20?

A

then the person is underweight

125
Q

what can an increase in BMI lead to?

A

high increase in type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease?

126
Q

what is CHD?

A

coronary heart disease

127
Q

what does uncoupled mitochondria generate?

A

heat not ATP

128
Q

what is brown fat?

A

special thermogenic tissue found in hibernating animals
more common in babies instead of adults

129
Q

what does brown fat consist of?

A

many mitochondria and fat droplets

130
Q

what is UCP?

A

uncoupling protein

131
Q

what is uncoupling protein?

A

originally found in brown fat
its present in the inner mitochondrial membrane
they are regulated proton channels in the membrane

132
Q

what is uncouple ATP synthesis?

A

from fatty acid oxidation
an electrochemical potential gradient dissipates which results in releasing heat thus increasing metabolic rate and burns excess feuls

133
Q

what are metabolic adaptatiions to cold in penguins?

A

avian uncoupling protein which is highly expressed in mitochondria and pectoral muscles
this oxidises fatty acids to generate heat

134
Q

what is avUCP?

A

avian uncoupling protein

135
Q

what do FDG-PET scans show?

A

areas of high glucose use and high metabolic rate

136
Q

what are BAT-oriented strategies?

A

to combat obesity to burn off excess feuls as heat

137
Q

what is switching on brown fat diffentation?

A

might be a potential thermapatic approach for humans obesity treatment

138
Q

how much is obseity related to genes?

A

30-80%

139
Q

what does the obese gene code?

A

for leptin

140
Q

what do obese people not produce?

A

leptin

141
Q

what is leptin?

A

a hormone that is secreted by fat cells
it signals the brain to decrease food intake an increase energy expenditure
it maintains a normal animal energy balance

142
Q

where is the leptin receptor?

A

in the hypothalymus of the brain and several other tissues

Bioc 192 (4 decks)

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