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Bioc 192 > 29-34 > Flashcards

29-34 Flashcards

1
Q

what is the main fat?

A

TAG

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2
Q

what is excess energy consumed as glucose stored as?

A

fat

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3
Q

what percentage of the human body is fat?

A

5-25%

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4
Q

what are stored carbohydrates called?

A

glycogen

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5
Q

what fraction of glycogen is water?

A

2/3

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6
Q

what happens when TAG reacts with lipase?

A

it splits into FFA and glycerol which is passively diffused in the blood

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7
Q

what is FFA?

A

free fatty acids

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8
Q

what is FFA in the blood?

A

hydrophobic so it is surrounded by albumin to form albumin-FFA which passively used within the tissues

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9
Q

what is FABP?

A

fatty acid binding protein

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10
Q

what does FABP do?

A

binds to the FFA and transports it across the cell membrane from the blood

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11
Q

does fatty acid activation after or before B-oxidation?

A

before

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12
Q

where does fatty acid oxidation occur?

A

before it enters the mitochondria

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13
Q

how are fatty acids activated?

A

by the attachment to CoA to make fatty acyl-CoA
energy is required to add the CoA from a hydrolysis of ATP to AMP

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14
Q

what is the structure of acetyl-CoA?

A

a 2-carbon chain

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15
Q

where does oxidation of fatty acids occur?

A

the mitochondrial matrix

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16
Q

how many membranes are between the cytosol and matrix?

A

2

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17
Q

what is the outer mitochondrial matrix called?

A

the fatty acyl-CoA carrier

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18
Q

what does the inner mitochondrial matrix require of the acetyl-CoA?

A

it need to to into acyl-carnitine

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19
Q

what does carnitine do?

A

binds to fatty acid acyl and removes the CoA in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria

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20
Q

what enzyme changes acyl-CoA to acyl-carnitine?

A

carnitine acyltransferase

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21
Q

what is the carnitine acyltransferase reaction?

A

exchanges the CoA and carnitine on a fatty acid using an enzyme called carnitine acyltransferase

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22
Q

what does B-oxidation use?

A

fatty acids with an even number of carbons that are saturated (no double bonds)

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23
Q

what is not directly made in B-oxidation?

A

ATP

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24
Q

what is the energy from B-oxidation go?

A

transferred to the co-enzymes NAD and FAD

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25
Q

what is the product of B-oxidation?

A

acetyl-CoA

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26
Q

what is the first reaction of B-oxidation?

A

an oxidation reaction that releases 2 molecules and forms a double bond while storing energy in FAD which goes to FADH2

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27
Q

what happens in the second reaction of B-oxidation?

A

a hydration reaction that breaks the double bond and binds H2O to the molecule

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28
Q

what happens in the third reaction of B-oxidation?

A

an oxidation reaction that removes 2 hydrogen bonds that the energy is captured in NAD+ which turns into NADH+ + H+

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29
Q

what happens in the fourth reaction of B-oxidation?

A

a cleavage between the A and B carbons
then acetyl-CoA is released and coASH is added to the remaining carbon chain

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30
Q

what does each reaction of oxidation of palmitic acid gain?

A

one NADH, FADH2 and one acetyl-CoA

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31
Q

what is CAC?

A

citric acid cycle

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32
Q

what are other names for the CAC?

A

tricarboxylic cycle (TCA)
krebs cycle

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33
Q

where does CAC occur?

A

in the mitochondria

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34
Q

what does the CAC start and finish with?

A

the same molecule

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35
Q

what does acetyl-CoA add to the CAC?

A

2 carbos

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36
Q

what does the 2 carbons that are added into the CAC come out as?

A

2 carbon dioxide

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37
Q

what do we capture when the carbon is oxidised?

A

a bit of energy (ATP) to use later in the cycle

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38
Q

what are the 2 parts that the CAC happen in?

A

carbon coming in and then being released.
take the molecule and rearranging the molecules to end up with 2 carbon binding

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39
Q

which of the 2 parts of the CAC is energy captured in?

A

both parts

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40
Q

what is oxaloacetate?

A

a 4 carbon molecule and it reacts with the acetyl-CoA in a condensation reaction and then the citrate is synthesised

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41
Q

what is needed when a molecule gets bigger?

A

energy

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42
Q

what is isomerisation of the citrate?

A

the rearrangement of citrate to isocitrate maeks the molecule susceptible to decarboxylation

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43
Q

what catalizes the isomerisation of citrate?

A

aconitase

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44
Q

how do people make poisons to attack the CAC?

A

using fluroacetate which is like acetate except has a fluro ion instead of a hydrogen so its very similar
fluroacetyl-CoA goes through the citrate synthase to produce flurocitrate which is converted into a substrate that binds tightly to aconitase and inactivates the enzyme

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45
Q

what does the inactivation of aconitase by flurocitrate do?

A

stops the CAC
we make excess acetyl-CoA and it doesnt get used
the delta G of the reaction will become unfavourable and the glycolysis and B-oxidation wont work and we make less ATP

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46
Q

what is the removal of the first carbon of citrate?

A

this is an oxidative decarboxylation which is the moving a carboxy group through an oxidation reaction
this happens in 2 steps

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47
Q

what is the first step of oxidative decarboxylation reaction of citrate?

A

turning isocitrate into oxalosuccinate which is the oxidation part of the reaction and we reduce this molecule and store the energy released in NAD+

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48
Q

what is the second step of oxidative decarboxylation reaction of citrate?

A

turning oxalossucinate into A-ketoglutarate as it chops off the carbon and it becomes a carbondioxide

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49
Q

what enzyme catalizes the oxidative decarboxylation of citrate?

A

isocitrate dehydrogenase

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50
Q

what is the removal of the second carbon of citrate?

A

oxidative decarboxylation which is very similar to the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction
CO2 is released and the energy is captured turning NAD+ into NADH+

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51
Q

how is succinyl-CoA to succinate?

A

the removal of the CoA releases enough energy to drive the synthesis of GTP

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52
Q

what is GTP the energy equivilant of?

A

ATP

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53
Q

what does GTP + ADP go to?

A

GDP + ATP
this doesnt require any energy to happen

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54
Q

what is the energy that is released from the chopping off of CoA used for?

A

phosphorylation reaction of turning GDP into GTP which holds the energy as our succinyl-CoA to succinate

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55
Q

what is substrate-level phosphorylation?

A

the direct use of energy from a substrate molecule to drive the synthesis of ATP

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56
Q

how does succinate go to oxaloacetate?

A

reactions similarily used in B-oxidation
succinate - fumarate
fumarate - malate
malate to oxaloacetate

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57
Q

how does succinate go to fumarate?

A

single bond to double bond in an oxidation reaction with the help of an enzyme called succinate dehydrogenase as energy is captured in FAD turning it to FADH2

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58
Q

how does fumarate go to malate?

A

a hydration reaction as hydroxal group is added on and double bond is broken with the help of an enzyme called fumarase

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59
Q

how does malate go to oxaloacetate?

A

oxidation reaction as another double bond is formed and the hydroxy group is released releasing a bit of energy that is captured in NAD which is now NADH + H+ with the help of an enzyme called malate dehydrogenase

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60
Q

what is the SDH?

A

located in the mitochondrial matrix
it uses FAD as a co-enzyme
SDH is part of CAC where FAD is reduced

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61
Q

what is needed to reduce FAD?

A

an electron transport chain?

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62
Q

what is ETC?

A

electron transport chain

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63
Q

what does the ETC do in the mitochondrial matrix?

A

turns the FADH2 into FAD to continue the reaction

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64
Q

what is the overall delta G of the CAC

A

-44.3kJ/mol
this is negative so the reaction is energetically favourable

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65
Q

what is the energy stored in amino acid bonds used for?

A

making stuff such as anything made with N such as haem

66
Q

what is deaminoation of amino acids?

A

the removing of the amino group from the amino acid
it generates a carbon skeleton which can be used for the capturing of energy and a free amino group which we cant extract energy from even if there is energy still in these bonds

67
Q

how does redox reactions deaminate amino acids?

A

it removes the amino group from the amino acid with the help of enzymes and releases it into the solution
this only works for some amino acids

68
Q

what is transaminating?

A

the deamination of amino acids by transferring their amino group to a keto group

69
Q

what enzyme catalysises transaminating?

A

aminotransferase enzymes (transaminase)

70
Q

what does transaminase do?

A

takes the amino group and bonds it to another molecule such as a ketone by taking the nitrogen from one carbon skeleton to another

71
Q

what is pyridoxal phosphate?

A

a co-enzyme that is required for transamination reactions

72
Q

what is PLP?

A

pyridoxal phosphate

73
Q

what is pyridoxal phosphate derrived from?

A

vitamin B6

74
Q

how is PLP used?

A

its a co-enzyme that carries an amino group for us attaches it to the keto acid

75
Q

what are the 2 forms that PLP can exist in?

A

pyridoxal phosphate which has no amino group
pyridoxamine phosphate which has the amino group

76
Q

what is the first step of transamination?

A

the amino group is transferred from the amino acid to the pyridoxal phosphate and it becomes pyridoxamine phosphate

77
Q

what is the second step of transamination?

A

the amino group is transferred pyridoxamine which now becomes pyridoxal phosphate and the amino group goes to the keto acid

78
Q

what are some common amino acid/keto acid pairs in metabolism?

A

glutamate - A-ketoglutamate
asparate - oxaloacetate
alanine - pyruvate

79
Q

where can amino acids be fed into the CAC?

A

at points where carbon skeletons enter the cycle

80
Q

what is the second function of transamination reactions?

A

to remove excess nitrogen via the liver
if we have amino acids as our main source of energy then it can led to the build up of nitrogen which can be toxic
we can turn nitrogen back into amino acds via the transamination reaction

81
Q

tranamination turns nitrogen into what to be excreted safely?

A

urea

82
Q

what is oxidative phosphorylation the coupled process of?
how are they coupled together?

A

ETC and the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP by ATP-synthase
they are coupled by a proton gradient

83
Q

what does the ECT in the mitochondria require?

A

oxygen

84
Q

what are the barriers to proton?

A

membranes

85
Q

how do we isolate the mitochondria from cells?

A

by treating it with strong or mild detergent

86
Q

what does treating cells with strong detergent do?

A

solubilizes all membranes so the ETC does not work as the ETC is not in a membrane so no proton gradient can form

87
Q

what does treating with mild detergent to a cell?

A

removes the outer membrane so ETC still works as ETC is in the inner mitochondrial membrane
the inner membrane provides a barrier to form a proton gradient

88
Q

electrons from what are fed into the ETC?

A

NADH and FADH2

89
Q

what happens to NADH and FADH2 once fed into the ETC?

A

the will ultimatly reduce molecular oxygen to water

90
Q

what is pumped as electrons are transported through the ETC?

A

protons to form a gradient

91
Q

what is the electron transport chain?

A

an organised series of complexes between which mobile carries transport electrons
its organized into 4 complexes, each complex contains multiple carriers

92
Q

what are the carriers in the ETC?

A

2 mobile carriers, ubiquinone and cytochrome c

93
Q

what is UQ?

A

ubiquinone

94
Q

what is cyt c?

A

cytochrome c

95
Q

what is UQ the same as?

A

co-enzyme Q

96
Q

what is required to move electrons through the ETC?

A

a series of redox reactions

97
Q

what does each carrier of the ETC do?

A

accepts electrons (is reduced) in one redox reaction and then donates electrons (is oxidised) in another redox reaction

98
Q

what happens as electron move through the carriers of the ETC?

A

energy is released which is used to translocate protons across the mitochondrial inner membrane

99
Q

what is the sequence of NADH in the ETC?

A

NADH - complex I - UQ - complex III - cyt c - complex IV - O2

100
Q

what is the sequence of FADH2 in the ETC?

A

FADH2 - complex II - UQ - complex III - cyt c - complex IV - O2

101
Q

what do inhibitors do in the ETC?

A

stop the flow of electrons through the ETC
no proton gradient is formed so ATP is not made and there is a build up of reduced co-enzymes (NADH and FADH2)

102
Q

what does retenone do?

A

inhibits electron transfer from complex I to UQ

103
Q

what does cyanide do?

A

binds to a carrier in complex IV

104
Q

what does carbon monoxide do?

A

binds where O2 binds

105
Q

what is Complex I?

A

where NADH is oxidised and 2 electrons are released into the ETC.
4 protons are pumped for each NADH oxidised

106
Q

what is Complex II?

A

where FADH2 is oxidised as well as the SDH reaction with is shared with the citric acid cycle
2 electrons are released into the ETC and no protons are pumped

107
Q

what does both complex I and complex II do?

A

pass 2 electrons to UQ which can then move within the inner mitochondrial membrane

108
Q

how many forms can UQ exist as?

A

2

109
Q

what does UQ do?

A

carries hydrogen atoms
undergoes 2-electron redox reactions but can accept or release one electron at a time

110
Q

how many electrons does CoQ release into complex III at a time?

A

1

111
Q

what is complex III?

A

releases one electron at a time to cytochrome c
it pumps 4 protons across the inner membrane

112
Q

what does cytochrome c do?

A

moves on the outer surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane
carries one electron at a time form complex III to complex IV

113
Q

what is cytochrome c?

A

a haem containing proteion and carries 1 electron via reversible Fe2+/Fe3+ redox reactions

114
Q

what is complex IV?

A

accepts 1 electron at a time from cytochrome c
it reduces oxygen to water (terminal electron acceptor)
for 1 NADH/FADH2 (2 electrons) = 2 H+ pumped

115
Q

what is the reaction equation that happens in complex IV?

A

1 NADH/FADH2 (2 electrons) = 1/2 O2 + 2H+ goes to H2O

116
Q

what is pmf?

A

proton-motive force

117
Q

what is the proton-motive force?

A

the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane that results in 2 energetic gradients

118
Q

what are the 2 energetic gradients?

A

electrical gradient
chemical gradient

119
Q

what is the chemical gradient?

A

due to different H+ concentrations on either side of the membrane

120
Q

what is the electrical gradient?

A

due to the charge difference across the membrane

121
Q

what is the electrochemical gradient known as?

A

know as the proton-motive force

122
Q

what produces the pmf?

A

the ETC

123
Q

what is in an artificial liposome?

A

bacteriorhodopsin

124
Q

what is bacteriorhodopsin?

A

a light induced proton pump so in light it pumps protons to make the proton gradient so ATP synthesis can occur in light even if the ETC doesnt work

125
Q

what is DNP?

A

2,4-dinitrophenol
its a poison

126
Q

what does DNP do?

A

its an uncoupler
it shuffles H+ from the intermembrane space to the matrix thus dissapating the proton gradient

127
Q

what occurs in the presense of DNP?

A

the ETC works but ATP is not made

128
Q

what is the F1F0-ATP synthesis?

A

how ATP is produced in the mitochondria

129
Q

what is the F1 section of F1F0?

A

the matrix

130
Q

what is the F0 section of the F1F0?

A

in the intermitochondrial membrane

131
Q

do the rotor subunits turn?

A

yes

132
Q

do the stator subunits turn?

A

nope

133
Q

what drives the rotor subunits?

A

a proton flow

134
Q

what does the rotor subunit movement do?

A

causes conformational changes in the stator that drives ATP synthesis
causes conformational change in the catalytic Alpha and Beta subunits of F1

135
Q

what is O in the rotor subunits?

A

open where ATP is released and ADP and Pi bind

136
Q

what is L in the rotor subunits?

A

loose where it holds the ADP and Pi in preperation for catalysis

137
Q

what is T in the rotor subunit?

A

tight where catalysis happens and ATP is formed

138
Q

how many protons are needed for the production of 1 ATP?

A

4

139
Q

what is the exchange if a NADH into ATP?

A

10 protons pumped in ETC so 2.5 ATP can be produced

140
Q

what is the exchange of a FADH2 into ATP?

A

6 protons pumped in ETC so 1.5 ATP can be produced

141
Q

what is hydrolysis?

A

the breaking down of the constituent molecules

142
Q

what type of intermediate are acetyl-CoA?

A

high energy

143
Q

can ATP be stored?

A

nope

144
Q

what does alcohol do to the nervous system?

A

binds to the GABA(A) receptor

145
Q

what is GABA?

A

gamma-aminobutyrate
its a neuro transmitter derived from glutamate

146
Q

what is the GABA(a) receptor do?

A

a membrane bound ligand-gated chloride channel as its a membrane protein
when activated it selectivly conducts Cl- ions causing an inhibitory effect on neurotransmission by reducing the chance of successful action potentials

147
Q

what effect does alcohol have on GABA(A) receptors?

A

it down regulates the signal from these receptors by increasing the flow of chloride that passes into the cell membrane

148
Q

hiow much energy is in alcohol?

A

29kJ/g

149
Q

what si alcohol dehydrogenase?

A

it is the enzyme that is responsible for the decrease in alcohol in the body over time
it moves alcohol into an aldehyde

150
Q

what are factors of aldehyde?

A

very reactive but they are more toxic than alcohol

151
Q

what does aldehyde dehydrogenase do?

A

conserves energy and converts the aldehyde into acetate which is a lot less harsh than an aldehyde

152
Q

what ate the 2 forms of aldehyde dehydrogenase?

A

cystolic
mitochondrial

153
Q

what does antabase do?

A

inhibits aldehyde dehydrogenase causing the individual to feel unwell due to build up of acetaldehyde

154
Q

what happens if we have too much fatty acids in VLDLs?

A

it can take away to be stored in adipose tissue which can result in fatty liver or steatosis

155
Q

what happens if we have sufficient ATP?

A

B-oxidation of fatty acids and the fatty acids will just remained stored in adipose tissue

156
Q

what are the consequences of alcohol on the CAC?

A

slows the CAC and electron transport, slows pyruvate dehydrogenase and glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation

157
Q

what does the pool of fatty acids build up in the liver result in?

A

the fatty acids accumulating in the blood
this causes pyruvate to go to lactate which decreases the blood pH and inhibits gluconeogenesis which can decrease the glucose in the body which is induced by alcohol and can result in a coma

158
Q

what is the microsomal ethanol oxidisng system?

A

the detoxification in the blood

159
Q

what does oxidase do?

A

made in response to alcohol and somtimes this fires and makes O2 which can cause oxidative damage
it also metabilses other drugs

160
Q

what can chronic alcohol metabolism lead to?

A

toxic acetaldehyde reactive oxygen species which leads to fatty liver, inflamation leads to alcohol hepatitis which leads to necrosis which leads to cirrhosis which leads to a coma or even death

161
Q

what does liver dysfunction cause?

A

a build up of NH3

Bioc 192 (4 decks)

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