3.2

Question 1

Late Medieval Medicine

Answer 1

• dominated by Aristotle and Galen

- Human dissections instruction, Physiology or functioning of the body, and the four humors were dominated by

Question 2

What was relied or dominated by Galen

Answer 2

-Human dissections instruction, Physiology or functioning of the body, and the four humors

Question 3

Galen

Answer 3

• 2nd century
• His human anatomy was relied on animal dissection and inaccurate in many instances
• Physiology: Believed there were two separate blood systems
• Created doctrine of Four Humors
• believed that the poison that caused the disease could cure if it was in the proper form and quantity

Question 4

Four Humors

Answer 4

• Blood: warm and moist
• Yellow bie: warm and dry
• Phlegm: cold and moist
• Block bile: cold and dry
• Since you could tell the imbalance of humors from the urine, examining the urine was a chief diagnostic tool
• treatment with herbal medicine were helpful

Question 5

Paracelsus

Answer 5

• 16th century
• Didn’t agree with Aristotle and Galen
• He desired to replace the traditional system with a new chemical philosophy
• Gave patients chemical remedies and paid attention to the amount of the chemicals
• believed that the poison that caused the disease could cure if it was in the proper form and quantity, “like cure like”
• KNOWN FOR DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF DISEASES

Question 6

Chemical Philosophy of paracelus

Answer 6

• a human is a small replica of the larger world
• the universe is represented within each person
• all chemical reactions of the universe are reproduced in human beings on a smaller scale
• said that diseases are due to chemical imbalanced and could be treated by chemical remedies

Question 7

Vesalius

Answer 7

• After discovering a text of Galen, he learned that practical research is the avenue for understanding human anatomy
• 16th century
• Book: On the Fabric of Human Body
• Since Taught Anatomy hands on, he could correct Galen’s mistakes
• Still held on to some of GalEN’s assertions

Question 8

Vesalius’s book: On the Fabric of Human Body

Answer 8

• showed a careful examination of the organs and structure of the human body
• Creation of illustrations were superior than anything before because of artistic advances of renaissance and printing
• Dissected to prove his point

Question 9

William Harvey

Answer 9

• 16th century

- Book: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

Question 10

harvey’s demonstrations

Answer 10

• the liver was not the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body
  -the same blood flows in veins and arteries
  blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body which laid the foundation for modern physiology

Question 11

Robert Boyle

Answer 11

• 17th and 18th century
• first to conduct controlled experiments
• Boyle’s law
• matter is made up of atoms instead of the same component

Question 12

Antoine Lavoisier

Answer 12

• 18th century
• Invented system of naming chemical elements
• demonstrate fundamental rules of chemical combination

Question 13

Women during the Middle Ages

Answer 13

• besides religious orders, women were to have a traditional life of a daugh, wife, and mother
• 14th and 15th century, they were encouraged to have secular, humanist education and to study classical and christian texts
• only privileged women had an ideal humanist education and if they were interested in science they had to get a largely informal education and could if they are noblewomen
• Difficulties of women shown in Winkelmann being denied by Berlin Academy

Question 14

German women during the middle ages

Answer 14

• participated in craft production that enabled them to be involved in science
• Craft organization of astronomy gave them opportunities and worked in family observatories as apprentices

Question 15

Margaret Cavendish

Answer 15

• 17th century aristocrat, English French
• Participated in the scientific debates of her time
• Didn’t agree that through science humans would be masters of nature and attacked the defects of rationalist and empiricist approaches to science.

Question 16

Maria Merian

Answer 16

• German, 18th century, craft tradition
• Entomologist (study of insects and plants)
• Learned and created illustrations of her observation of insects and plants
• After going to South America, she created book that showed illustrations

Question 17

Maria Winkelmann

Answer 17

• German, craft organization of astronomy
• Discovered an undiscovered comet and was Kirch’s assistant at Berlin Academy
• Praised by Gottfried Leibniz
• Denied by Berlin Academy to be assistant astronomer because she was a women with no university degree

Question 18

Querelles des femmes

Answer 18

Debate about women

Question 19

beliefs of Querelles des femmes

Answer 19

• Women were seen as without merit, inclined to do bad things, easily swayed or controlled, and sexually insatiable
• Men need to control women
• Learned women were seen as overcoming feminine bad qualities to become a man

Question 20

women responding to Querelles des femmes

Answer 20

• Said women don’t need male authority

- Said education was the key to women’s ability to move into the world

Question 21

Scientific Revolution and the View of Women

Answer 21

• the scientific revolution was used to find new support for the old views of women
• Attempt to illustrate human body and skeleton (MORE ON ANOTHER FLASHCARD)
• distribution of books ensure the continuation of male dominance
• midwifery (MORE ON ANOTHER FLASHCARD)

Question 22

Scientific Revolution and the View of Women

Attempt to illustrate human body and skeleton

Answer 22

• 6th and 17th century: Vesalius saw no difference in skeleton of men and women
• 18th century: in drawings, women had a larger pelvic area which proved that women were meant to be childbearers and smaller skulls which provided men are more superior

Question 23

Scientific Revolution and the View of Women (midwifery)

Answer 23

• traditionally being a women’s job
• men took over in 18th century, using techniques derived from the study of anatomy, which justify male dominance
• only among the poor, midwives could continue doing this

Question 24

Descartes

Answer 24

• 7th century
• Had an experience where he perceived the outlines of a new rational mathematical system
• Book: Discourse on Method
• Decided that he would accept only the things that this reason said were true
• Created Cartesian dualism
• Believed that the mind and matter are different because the mind cannot be doubted but the material world can
• Emphasized deduction and mathematical logic and rationalism
• He started with an axiom known to be true then used logical reasoning to deduce various inferences

Question 25

Cartesian dualism

Answer 25

• Using human reason and mathematics we can understand the material world
• the material world is a machine that is governed by its own physical laws and created by God

Question 26

The Effect of Descartes on others

Answer 26

• Scientists saw matter as wit and separate from them and could be investigated independently by reason
• People saw mind and reason as equals
• Rationalism was created
• Protestants and Catholics didn’t like his ideas
• His ideas were devastating for traditional religious views of universe and how westerners viewed themselves

Question 27

Francis Bacon

Answer 27

• 17th century, English
• Thought human reason was badly put together and proceeded incorrectly and to reconstruct everything
• Created a correct scientific method, built on inductive principles, where he urged scientists to go from particular to general
• His inductive method begins with direct observation of phenomena, then the data produced is recorded and leads to a hypothesis that is re-tested; in other words: DO EXPERIMENTS or Empiricism
• He wanted science to contribute to mechanical arts and to help human utility and power where humans can control nature to benefit from it

Question 28

Scientific Method by Newton

Answer 28

• Using observations and experiments, you arrive at general concepts, then new deductions from the general concepts could be tested and verified by more experiments
• Bacon (empiricism) and descartes (rationalism) combined
• answered the question of how something works instead of why

Question 29

Scientific Societies

Answer 29

-first created in Italy, but english and french were more successful
-sponsored by government and monarchies
scientists used these societies to promote search and spread knowledge
-English, French, and German who were sponsored by the government and were small
-scientific journals helped circulating news of scientific academic activities

Question 30

English Royal Society & French Royal Academy of Sciences

Answer 30

• english: little government encouragement, Philosophical Transactions published papers of members and aimed at practicing scientists
• french: had state support and foreed to continues its work to benefit the king and state, Journal des Savants published weekley’s of results of experiments and scientific knowledge
• in 17th century, emphasized value of scientific research and benefits of science by investigating technological improvements and collecting tools
• in 17th century interested in work in mechanics and astronomy by created observatories
• demonstrated benefits of science proceeding as a cooperative venture

Question 31

The Acceptance of New Science in 17th and 18th Century

Answer 31

• literate mercantile and propertied elites were attracted to the new science because it offered new ways to utilize resources for profit and scientists showed that the new ideas could be applied to industrial and technological needs and made science was a part of high culture of wealthy elites
• Political interest used new scientific conception of the natural world to bolster social stability
• During the Puritan Revolution, puritans used the new science to reform society and brought in new groups that support radical science and natural magic of hermetic tradition and radical political ideas
• Responding to radical reforms of church and state, founders of Royal Science supported new mechanistic and experimental science and remain separate from radical reforms or church and state.
• Rich merchants and property owners wanted believed they could keep the social order and benefiting themselves and improving human condition
• 18th century, Newtonian science was applied to trade and Newtonian world machine was accepted and applied to trade
• Princes and kings supported science for prestige and military application of mathematical sciences and controlled and manage scientific body of knowledge (french academy)

Question 32

Science and Religion

Answer 32

-The church believed that religion was the final measure of all things and lent authority to Ptolemaic-Aristotelian cosmology
-Scientists wanted to draw lines between knowledge and religion and nature
-Because the church lent its authority to Ptolemaic-Aristotelian, people saw this as a division between scientific investigations and religious beliefs
Secularization grew because scientific beliefs triumphed
-Spinoza and Pascal illustrate the diversity of responses of people to the split of religion and science

Question 33

Spinoza

Answer 33

• Believed in pantheism
• human beings and nature are a part of God
• believed emotions come from nature and need to be analyzed
• Believed everything has a rational explanation and we are capable of finding it
• He thought “idiots” Thought God must be worshiped to gain their OWN ends and thought when nature was unfriendly, it was because they did something wrong instead of that it happens to everyone

Question 34

Pantheism

Answer 34

God is the universe and nothing can be apart from him

Question 35

Pascal

Answer 35

-Wanted to science and religion united
was involved in science and had a mystical vision that assured him that God cared for the human soul
-book: Pensees
-wanted to show that Christian religion was not opposite to reason and was the only religion that —said people are vulnerable and great
-famous bet is that it is good we believe God exists
-Reused to rely on scientist’s world of order and rationality to teach people about God
-Rested and faith and believed reason could take people only so far
-Since he believed man focuses too much on finite world, we don’t focus on the infinite world.
-Believed nature could never reveal God and we have to rely on a God who through jesus cared for human beings
-Believed people can only experience God by heart instead of reason

Question 36

Pascal’s book: Pensees

Answer 36

• Tried to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to their reason and emotions
• Humans are weak, but their nature is to think