3.1.1.3 the prime minister and cabinet

Question 1

Cabinet

Answer 1

The prime minister and senior ministers, most of whom are heads of government departments, It is formally the key decision-making body in British government

Question 2

Executive

Answer 2

The branch of government responsible for policy making and implementation. In the UK, the executive comprimises the prime minister, cabinet and junior ministers

Question 3

Government department

Answer 3

An administrative unit of the executive that is usually responsible for a particular area of policy.

Question 4

Minister

Answer 4

An MP or member of the house of lords who is appointed to a specific position in the government by the prime minister

Question 5

Prime Minister

Answer 5

The head of the government and the executive branch. The PM chairs the cabinet

Question 6

whcih institutions make up the political executive?

Answer 6

the treasury, the PM, the cabinet office

Question 7

who staff the government departments

Answer 7

civil servants

Question 8

government departments

Answer 8

the administrative executive and oversee the daily administration of government

Question 9

civil servants

Answer 9

they are not political appointments and remain in post when the government changes

Question 10

What is the role of the executive?

Answer 10

-Making political decisions
-Proposing legislations
-Proposing a budger

Question 11

Making political decisions

Answer 11

The prime minister and cabinet set political priorites and determine the country’s overall policy direction. They also make day to day decisions on policy. The administrative executive is responsible for policy implementation and oversees the day to day administration of the state.

Question 12

Proposing legislation

Answer 12

The executive devises and initiates legislation. Most primary legislation is proposes by the executive. Government bills put into effect the policies proposed in the manifesto of the governing arty. The executive itself has law-making powers on secondary legislation.

Question 13

secondary legislation

Answer 13

A form of legislation which allows provisions of an Act of Parliament to be brought into force or altered by ministers without requiring additional primary legislation.

Question 14

Proposing a budget

Answer 14

The executive makes key decisions on economic policy and proposesa budget. This chancellor sets out proposed levels of taxation and public spending in the budget, following negotiations in cabinet and with government departments.

Question 15

Powers of the executive

Answer 15

-prerogative powers
-control of the legislation agenda
-powers of secondary legisaltion

Question 16

Prerogative powers

Answer 16

These are powers exercise by ministers that do not require parliamentary approval. They are collectively known as the royal prerogative and date from the time when the monarch had direct involvement in government.

Question 17

royal prerogative

Answer 17

a set of powers exercise by government ministers or by the monarch which do not require parliamentary approval.

Question 18

what powers does the monarch still retain

Answer 18

-the appointment of prime ministers and giving royal assent to legislation, but in using these the monarch seeks to avoid controversy and acts under the direction of ministers

Question 19

examples of prerogative powers

Answer 19

-making and ratifying treaties
-international diplomacy
-deployment of the armed forces oversees
-the prime minister’s patronage powers and ability to recommend the dissolution of parliament
-the organistation of the civil service
-the granting of pardons

Question 20

control of legislative agenda

Answer 20

Most bills are proposed by the government and it controls the legislative timetable. Most government bills are approved by parliament and become law. Private member bills’ that do not enjoy governemnt support and are unlikely to succeed. Government control of the legislative processmis also seen in its imposition of party discipline on important votes and the requirement that all ministers must support government in parliament.

Question 21

powers of secondary legislation

Answer 21

These vary from being largely technical to providing greater detail on broad provisions of an Act. Some 3500 statuatory instruments are used per year. They are scrutinised by parliamentary committees but most are not debated and it is unusaual for SIs to be rejected. However, the house of lords amended two regualtions on tax credits in 2015

Question 22

The prime minister

Answer 22

-head of UK government
-provides political leadership within the cabinet system and the country at large
-chairs cabinet
-appoints ministers
-leader of the largest party

Question 23

Post War PMs

Answer 23

Clement Attlee (1945-51), Winston Churchill (1951-55), Anthony Eden (1955-57), Harold MacMillan (1957-63), Alec Douglas-Home (1963-64), Harold Wilson (1964-1970), Edward Heath (1970-74), Harold Wilson (1974-76), James Callahan (1976-79), Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990), John Major (1990-1997), Tony Blair (1997-2007), Gordon Brown (2007-10), David Cameron (2010-16), Theresa May (2016-19), Boris Johnson (2019-22), Liz Truss (2022) and Rishi Sunak (2022-)

Question 24

role of prime minister

Answer 24

-political leadership
-national leadership
-appointing the government
-chairing the cabinet
-managing the executive
-prerogative powers
-managing relations with parliament
-representing the uk in international affairs

Question 25

Political leadership

Answer 25

The Prime Minister decides the political direction taken by the government, setting it’s priorities and strategy, They decide policy on high profile issues

Question 26

National leadership

Answer 26

The Prime Minister is the predominant political figure in the uk and provides national leadership at times of crisis. They are responsible for national security

Question 27

appointing the government

Answer 27

The prime minister determines the membership of the government by appointing and dismissing ministers

Question 28

Chairing the cabinet

Answer 28

The Prime Minister chairs meetings of the cabinet, sets its agenda and steers its decisions. They create cabinet committees and hold bilateral meeting with ministers

Question 29

Managing relations with parliament

Answer 29

The prime minister makes statements to and answers questions in, the house of commons. They also shape the governments legislative programme

Question 30

representing the UK in international affairs

Answer 30

The Prime Ministers represent the UK in high level international diplomacy

Question 31

The roles of a prime minister

Answer 31

• political leadership
• national leadership
• appointing the government
• charing the cabinet
• managing the executive
• prerogative powers
• managing relations with parliament
• representing the UK in international affairs

Question 32

3 requirements to become PM

Answer 32

-must be a member of parliament
-must be the leader of a political party
-the party that they lead will normally have a majority in parliament

Question 33

Who invites the leader of the party with a majority in coomons to form a government

Answer 33

The Monarch

Question 34

Majority government

Answer 34

A government consisting of members of one political party which has an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons.

Question 35

Coalition government

Answer 35

A government consisting of two or more political parties formed after an agreement between them on policy and the allocation of ministerial positions.

Question 36

Minority government

Answer 36

A government consisting of members of one political party which does not have an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons.

Question 37

PMs office

Answer 37

The senior civil servants and special advisers, based at 10 Downing Street, who provide advice and support for the prime minister.

Question 38

10 Downing street

Answer 38

The residence and office of the prime minister. ‘Number 10’ and ‘Downing Street’ are sometimes used to refer to the Prime Minister’s Office.

Question 39

The prime minister’s office

Answer 39

The prime minister does not head a government department, nor is there a formal prime minister’s department. However, within 10 Downing Street is the Prime Minister’s Office and this has grown in importance. Its staff of around 190 people are a mix of career civil servants and special advisers.

Question 40

Two important aspects of the work of the Prime Minister’s Office are:

Answer 40

-policy advice
-communications

Question 41

policy advice

Answer 41

It provides the prime minister with policy advice,
which may differ from that given by ministers. The Prime Minister’s Office also helps to set the future direction of government policy. Since Tony Blair’s premiership, the Prime Minister’s Office has had an important role in coordinating policy making and implementation across government. David Cameron initially scaled back this role but then strengthened Number 10’s oversight of Whitehall by establishing a Policy and Implementation Unit.

Question 42

communications

Answer 42

The Prime Minister’s Office is responsible for
the presentation of government policy. This function has grown in importance with the intensification of the media focus on the prime minister. Following criticism of the politicisation of communications under Blair’s communications director, Alastair Campbell, responsibility for government communications was transferred to a senior civil servant.

Question 43

the resources avaliable to a PM to make tyhe powerful

Answer 43

-patronage
-authority within the cabinet system
-policy-making input
-party leadership
-public standing

Question 44

patronage

Answer 44

The power of an individual to appoint someone to an important position.

Question 45

what is the most significant patronage power

Answer 45

to appoint government ministers

Question 46

other patronage powers

Answer 46

-life peers
-the honours system

Question 47

How many life peers remain in the house of commons

Answer 47

92

Question 48

life peers

Answer 48

The prime minister can appoint people to the House of Lords as life peers. They may include former MPs or party supporters who have made significant contributions in other areas of public life.

Question 49

what does the power to appoint life peers mean

Answer 49

The power to nominate life peers enables prime ministers to alter the party balance within the Lords. Blair increased Labour’s representation in the Lords by appointing 162 Labour peers. The prime minister may nominate life peers with a view to giving them ministerial positions. Gordon Brown gave government portfolios and life peerages to five prominent public figures who were not politicians, including former Confederation of British Industry (CBI) head Sir Digby Jones.

Question 50

the honours system

Answer 50

A police inquiry into allegations of ‘cash for honours’ — that donors to the Labour Party were rewarded with peerages — ended in 2007 without criminal charges being brought. But it led to changes to the prime minister’s role in the honours system. Nominations are now considered by honours committees made up of civil servants and people independent of government. The prime minister accepts their list. In cases where a nominee has donated to a political party, the committee considers whether they are deserving of an honour regardless of the donation.

Question 51

Appointing cabinet ministers

Answer 51

The prime minister’s power to appoint and dismiss government ministers, particularly at cabinet level, provides a crucial advantage over colleagues. In theory, prime ministers can create a cabinet in their own image, rewarding supporters and penalising disloyal MPs. In practice, the prime minister does not have a free hand.

Question 52

2010 appointing cabinet ministers

Answer 52

The 2010 coalition agreement required Cameron to appoint five Liberal Democrats to his cabinet but all prime ministers face informal constraints on their choice of ministers. A prime minister is, for example, unlikely to overlook senior party figures, some of whom may be rivals for their job.

Question 53

1995 appointing minsiters

Answer 53

Brown agreed not to stand against Blair in the 1995 Labour leadership election and in return received assurances that he would become chancellor of the exchequer in a future Labour government. Blair was required by Labour Party rules to select his first cabinet (in 1997) from those previously elected to the shadow cabinet by Labour MPs.

Question 54

2016 appointing ministers

Answer 54

In 2016, 15 ministers who had attended cabinet under Cameron, including George Osborne and Michael Gove, were not appointed to May’s first cabinet. Some commentators saw this as a sign of May’s authority, while others noted that those dismissed could make trouble on the backbenches.

Question 55

ideological considerations appoinitng cabinet ministers

Answer 55

A cabinet that contains politicians from only one wing of a party may not have the full support of that party. Margaret Thatcher included both economic ‘dries’ (Thatcherites) and ‘wets’ (one-nation Conservatives) to her first cabinet, but gave the key positions to her allies. New Labour politicians dominated Blair’s cabinets but Old Labour was appeased by the appointment of John Prescott as deputy prime minister. Most ministers in Theresa May’s first cabinet had campaigned to remain in the EU in the 2016 referendum, but Leave campaigners Boris Johnson, Liam Fox and David Davis were put in charge of departments that would deliver Brexit.

Question 56

Cabinet reshuffle

Answer 56

A series of changes to the personnel of the cabinet and the positions they occupy, instigated by the prime minister.

Question 57

Cabinet reshuffles

Answer 57

Prime ministers can also reshuffle cabinet portfolios. Some ministers might be moved to another post and others dismissed entirely. This allows the prime minister to promote successful ministers, demote those who have underachieved, and freshen up the team. The prime minister decides the timing of a cabinet reshuffle but a sudden resignation may force an unwanted reshuffle.

Question 58

Botched cabinet reshuffle

Answer 58

A botched reshuffle may raise questions about the prime minister’s judgement, reveal cabinet divisions and highlight policy failings. This was true of Harold Macmillan’s 1962 reshuffle, dubbed the ‘night of the long knives’, in which he sacked seven cabinet ministers. Margaret Thatcher’s demotion of foreign secretary Sir Geoffrey Howe in 1989 had damaging consequences because his resignation a year later triggered Thatcher’s downfall.

Question 59

Authority in the cabinet system

Answer 59

As chair of the cabinet, the prime minister steers and sums up discussions. Skilful prime ministers ensure that their favoured position prevails. However, if a group of senior ministers promotes an alternative viewpoint, the prime minister may not get his or her way so easily. Poor management of the cabinet by a prime minister who is either too domineering or too indecisive will weaken their authority. An effective prime minister will act as coordinator or broker on disputed issues. It is the prime minister’s role to direct the government’s general strategy, giving a sense of purpose, cohesion and direction.

Question 60

Authority’s PMs have in cabinet

Answer 60

-chairs cabinet meetings
-manages the agenda of cabinet meetings and determines their frequency and length
-directs and sums up cabinet discussions
-creates cabinet committees and appoints their members
-holds bilateral meetings with ministers
-appoints senior civil servants
-organises the structure of government

Question 61

2016 authority with cabinet

Answer 61

In 2016, May established (and chaired) a new Economy and Industrial Strategy Committee. The prime minister can also reshape the structure and top personnel of central government. For example, May merged the functions of two former departments into the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy.

Question 62

Agenda setting

Answer 62

The prime minister can determine the agenda of cabinet meetings by:
-controlling the information presented to ministers by determining which issues and papers should be brought before cabinet
-keeping potentially difficult issues off the cabinet agenda by dealing with them in a cabinet committee or in a bilateral meeting with the
relevant minister
-deciding the chair, membership and remit of cabinet committees

Question 63

bilateral meeting

Answer 63

A meeting between the prime minister and a departmental minister in which policy is agreed.

Question 64

Policy input

Answer 64

The prime minister’s policy-making role is not confined to a specific field. Instead, he or she has licence to get involved in issues across the political spectrum. A prime minister with a strong interest in an issue can give it a central place in the government’s programme.

Question 65

Who is the most important actort when crisies occur?

Answer 65

The prime minister is the most important actor when crises occur and takes an active interest in economic and foreign policy. The chancellor and foreign secretary are powerful positions but the prime minister is likely to set objectives, and direct and coordinate policy in these crucial areas.

Question 66

Example of policy input

Answer 66

Chancellor Nigel Lawson and foreign secretary Geoffrey Howe forced Margaret Thatcher to shift government policy on the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) in 1989 by threatening to resign if she continued to rule out Britain’s entry into the system.

Question 67

Thatcher policy input

Answer 67

Thatcher played an active role in many policy fields. Instances of policy success (e.g. the 1982 Falklands War) strengthened her position but in
the case of the poll tax, policy failure undermined her authority

Question 68

Blair policy input

Answer 68

The 2003 invasion of Iraq undermined Blair’s position when doubts about the government’s case for war raised questions about his judgement and trustworthiness. In domestic politics, Blair became frustrated that increased public spending in health and education delivered only gradual improvement

Question 69

Brown policy input

Answer 69

Brown forged a reputation for competence as chancellor but the financial crisis undermined his economic credibility when he was prime minister.

Question 70

Cameron policy input

Answer 70

The 2010 coalition agreement limited Cameron’s room for manoeuvre, but he set the overall agenda (e.g. the deficit reduction strategy) and determined responses to emerging issues (e.g. military intervention in Libya in 2011).

Question 71

Party leadership

Answer 71

The prime minister is leader of the largest party in the House of Commons. A working majority in parliament strengthens their position because they are better able to enact the government’s programme. However, the increased incidence of rebellion by backbench MPs means that a prime minister cannot always rely on party support.

Question 72

2010 party leadership

Answer 72

The Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government’s proposals on reform of the House of Lords were dropped after a rebellion by Conservative MPs, and Conservative rebellions on EU issues contributed to Cameron’s decision to promise an in/out referendum on membership.

Question 73

Labour and conservative party leadership

Answer 73

Labour and Conservative leaders are elected by their MPs and party members and this legitimises their position. The length and cost of
the leadership election process makes the sudden removal of a prime minister by the party less likely but a party’s support for its leader is not unconditional.

Question 74

Thatcher-Brown party leadership

Answer 74

Margaret Thatcher was forced out of office after failing to win the 1990 leadership contest. John Major resigned as Conservative leader — but not as prime minister — in 1995, calling a leadership contest to reassert his authority. He won, but one-third of the party failed to support him. And both Blair and Brown survived efforts by Labour MPs to force them out of office.

Question 75

public standing

Answer 75

The prime minister has a high public profile. He or she provides political leadership at home and represents the UK in international affairs. Thatcher and Blair made a significant impact on the world stage and had a strong relationship with the president of the United States.

Question 76

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Patronage YES

Answer 76

-They can appoint ministers.
-They can place allies in key roles.
-They can dismiss ministers.
-They can appoint outsiders to government.

Question 77

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Patronage NO

Answer 77

-Senior colleagues might have claims to posts.
-They can be restricted by desire for an ideological
balance across all parts of the party.
-Botched reshuffles can create rivals.
-Their choice is limited by the availability of talent

Question 78

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Authority in the cabinet system YES

Answer 78

-The prime minister chairs and manages cabinet meetings.
-They steer and sum up cabinet discussions.
-They create cabinet committees and appoint members
to them.
-They can use bilateral meetings with ministers to steer
policy.

Question 79

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Authority in the cabinet system NO

Answer 79

-Problems can arise if senior ministers feel ignored.
-Senior ministers may challenge the prime minister’s policy preference.
-The prime minister is not involved in detailed policy making in cabinet committees.
-Ministers represent departmental interests, seeking
additional resources and influence.

Question 80

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Party leadership YES

Answer 80

-The prime minister has authority as party leader.
-They have been elected as leader by MPs and party
members (Conservative and Labour parties).
-The party normally has a majority in the House of
Commons.

Question 81

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Party Leadership NO

Answer 81

-Support of the party is not unconditional.
-Party rules allow for a leadership challenge.
-Backbench rebellions have become more frequent.

Question 82

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Public standing YES

Answer 82

-The prime minister has a higher public profile than other ministers.
-They are communicator-in-chief for the government.
-They provide national leadership in times of crisis.

Question 83

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Public standing NO

Answer 83

-Unpopularity with voters can undermine their authority.
-They are blamed for the government’s failings.
-They are expected to represent the public mood.

Question 84

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Policy making YES

Answer 84

-The prime minister directs government policy and sets agenda.
-They can direct policy in areas of their choosing.
-They represent the UK in international affairs.

Question 85

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? POlicy making NO

Answer 85

-They are expected to be able to articulate a vision.
-They lack the time and expertise to have any
significant involvement in this.
-Globalisation has reduced the scope for action.

Question 86

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Prime ministers office YES

Answer 86

-The Office provides advice and support to the prime minister.

Question 87

Do the resources available to the prime minister bring him or her significant power? Prime Ministers office NO

Answer 87

-The Office provides advice and support to the prime minister.

Question 88

Public satisfaction

Answer 88

Public satisfaction with the prime minister strengthens their position. A prime minister regarded as a strong and effective leader has much greater authority than one perceived as weak or out of touch. Thatcher polarised opinion but was widely regarded as a strong leader with a clear agenda. This image was a profitable one for much of her premiership but towards the end she was viewed as autocratic. Blair enjoyed high opinion poll ratings until the Iraq war damaged his standing. Cameron’s poll ratings fell as austerity measures took effect but he remained more popular than his party.

Question 89

Cabinet Ministers

Answer 89

The cabinet consists of the senior ministers in the government. The number who can receive a cabinet minister’s salary is limited to 22. The prime minister may also invite ministers to attend cabinet without making them full members of cabinet. Cameron gave 10 ministers this right to attend in 2012; there were 5 such members in May’s 2016 cabinet. Eight members of May’s first cabinet were women — equalling the record number appointed by Tony Blair in 2006.

Question 90

most important department in cabinet

Answer 90

Treasury, Foreign Office and Home Office.

Question 91

recent cabinet posts creations

Answer 91

the Department for Exiting the European Union was established after the 2016 EU referendum

Question 92

Deputy Prime minister

Answer 92

The position of deputy prime minister is not a fixed one in UK government and there are no specific powers or responsibilities associated with it. Blair gave the title to John Prescott, his deputy as party leader, while Nick Clegg became deputy prime minister as leader of the Liberal Democrats, the junior party in the 2010–15 coalition government.

Question 93

Cabinet ministers as MP

Answer 93

Cabinet ministers must be members of parliament, to which they are politically accountable. Most sit in the House of Commons. It is unusual for members of the House of Lords to head major government departments. Two exceptions in the Brown government were Lord Mandelson, secretary of state for business, enterprise and regulatory reform (2008–10) and Lord Adonis, secretary of state for transport (2009–10).

Question 94

Cabinet meetings

Answer 94

The frequency and length of cabinet meetings has fallen since the 1950s. Then it tended to meet twice per week but now it meets just once a week when parliament is in session. Cabinet meetings under Blair tended to last about an hour, with some over in half that time. Meetings were longer under Cameron because he adopted a more collegiate style in his first years in office but, like Blair, he came to prefer to do business outside of the cabinet.

Question 95

Formal Cabinet meetings

Answer 95

Cabinet meetings are rather formal: there is a fixed seating arrangement, the agenda is settled in advance and items are introduced by departmental ministers, with interventions from senior ministers and relevant departmental ministers given priority.

Question 96

Cabinet committees

Answer 96

Sub- committees of the cabinet appointed by the prime minister to consider aspects of government business.

Question 97

Decisions within a cabinet committees

Answer 97

-ministerial standing committees, which are permanent for the prime minister’s term of office
-ministerial sub-committees, which report to a standing committee
-ad hoc committees, which are temporary committees set up to deal with a particular issue
-implementation taskforces, such as those used by Cameron and May to track progress on policies that cross departmental boundaries

Question 98

Ministerial standing committees

Answer 98

Ministerial standing committees have considerable autonomy to determine the direction and detail of policy. Only where a final verdict has not been reached will the cabinet concern itself with the deliberations of a cabinet committee. The prime minister is responsible for the creation, membership, chairmanship and terms of reference of cabinet committees. He or she can establish cabinet committees to examine issues they wish to prioritise or which are pressing concerns.

Question 99

criticisms of cabinet committees

Answer 99

Cabinet committees were given greater priority following criticism of Blair’s preference for informal meetings. They were revived as important forums for discussion and resolution of differences in the Conservative– Liberal Democrat coalition and May streamlined the structure in 2016, having just five committees and ten sub-committees (see Figure 6.5). Long-standing cabinet committees dealing with home, economic and European affairs became sub-committees in the 2016 reorganisation. There were also seven implementation taskforces chaired by ministers.

Question 100

Cameron cabinet committees

Answer 100

Cameron chaired only two committees and two sub-committees when he took office in 2010.

Question 101

legisaltive proposals

Answer 101

Legislative proposals considered in cabinet committees must receive prior approval from the Treasury and Law Officers. If a proposal impacts upon the work of another department, the minister proposing the idea should seek the views of that department. Policy decisions are also reached in bilateral meetings between the prime minister and a departmental minister. Blair conducted much government business in this manner, while meetings between Cameron and deputy prime minister Nick Clegg were crucial to the operation of the coalition government 2010–15.

Question 102

Cabinet office definition

Answer 102

A government department responsible for supporting the cabinet system and the prime minister, and managing the civil service.

Question 103

Cabinet system

Answer 103

The cabinet and its associated bodies, including cabinet committees and the Cabinet Office.

Question 104

The cabinet office

Answer 104

The Cabinet Office was created in 1916 to provide support for the cabinet system. The key unit is the Cabinet Secretariat, which regulates and coordinates cabinet business. It calls meetings, circulates papers, prepares the agenda and writes the minutes of meetings. The secretariat also coordinates work on issues that bridge departments, and acts as a facilitator in case of disputes. It is responsible to the prime minister and to committee chairs. The head of the civil service (Sir Jeremy Heywood since 2014) attends cabinet meetings as its secretary.

Question 105

The cabinet office under Blair

Answer 105

Under Blair, the Cabinet Office was given a leading role in policy delivery and public service reform. It was, in effect, brought within the remit of 10 Downing Street. Under the coalition, it led on political reform.

Question 106

what sets out role and functions of parlaiment and committees

Answer 106

the ministerial code and the cabinet manual

Question 107

The functions of Cabinet

Answer 107

-registering and ratifying decisions taken elsewhere in the cabinet system
-discussing and making decisions on major issues
-receiving reports on key developments and determining government business in parliament
-settling disputes between government departments

Question 108

The main business of the cabinet and cabinet committees concerns

Answer 108

-questions that engage the collective responsibility of government because they raise major policy issues or are of critical public importance
-matters on which there is an unresolved dispute between government departments

Question 109

Cabinet ministers 1960s and 1970s

Answer 109

The cabinet takes fewer decisions than it did in the past. Diaries of cabinet ministers from the 1960s and 1970s reveal that on issues such
as EEC membership and economic policy, the cabinet held lengthy discussions before reaching a decision. Thatcher and Blair avoided lengthy cabinet discussions and key decisions were instead taken by small groups of ministers and advisers.

Question 110

Discussing or making decisions on major issues

Answer 110

the cabinet remains the ultimate decision-making body in the government. Yet for most areas of government activity, the cabinet is not an important actor in the decision-making process.

Question 111

Discussing or making decisions on major issues role is more significant when

Answer 111

• issues are especially important or sensitive
• major or unexpected developments require a rapid decision
• government departments and ministerial committees have been unable to reach agreement

Question 112

Prime minister vs ministers making decisions

Answer 112

Ministers can advise and warn, but it is the prime minister who must ultimately make a decision. The prime minister sums up the discussions and announces a verdict.

Question 113

Are votes taken on cabinet decions?

Answer 113

No

Question 114

2003 special cabinet

Answer 114

n 2003, a special cabinet meeting was devoted to membership of the euro. Ministers aired their views, but in reality the cabinet was endorsing a decision — that the UK was not ready to adopt the euro — already taken by the prime minister and chancellor. The prime minister might also keep a sensitive issue away from cabinet to minimise the chance of their view being challenged.

Question 115

Thatcher cabinet

Answer 115

Thatcher opposed entry to the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) and did not want open discussion on it because other ministers were in favour of joining. But blocking discussion proved counterproductive as it widened the rift between the prime minister and her senior ministers. It will often be better for the prime minister to gauge the views of colleagues, assure them that they are being considered and persuade them of the worth of the policy and of cabinet unity.

Question 116

Ken Clarke decision making

Answer 116

Ken Clarke, who was a cabinet minister under Thatcher, Major and Cameron, noted that the level of cabinet discussion declined significantly during this period, and that much of the time in cabinet meetings under Cameron was taken up by departmental reports rather than discussion.

Question 117

Reports on current issues

Answer 117

The cabinet hears reports on current developments, allowing ministers to keep abreast of events and discuss policy priorities. Cabinet meetings have a formal agenda, with the following reports as standard:
- parliamentary business
- economic and home affairs
- foreign affairs

Question 118

Parliamentary report

Answer 118

In the parliamentary report, the leaders of the House of Commons and House of Lords outline the following week’s business. This reflects the cabinet’s formal role in timetabling government bills and ministerial statements.

Question 119

On the others issues…

Answer 119

ministers may wish to clarify or question policy. They may offer their personal view, or that of a department or a section of their party. But the cabinet is not a debating society and time for discussion is limited. Only a small number of interventions, usually by senior ministers, are taken.

Question 120

Settling disputes

Answer 120

If an issue cannot be settled in cabinet committee or bilateral meetings, it may be referred to the cabinet. Some appeals are straightforward matters of arbitration between competing departmental claims, for example over spending allocations or which department will lead on legislation. The cabinet judges the strength of the cases and reaches a binding decision.

Question 121

The role of the court in settling disputes

Answer 121

This role as a court of appeal does not always work smoothly. In the 1985 Westland affair, secretary of state for defence Michael Heseltine resigned because he was unhappy with Thatcher’s ruling that cabinet would not hear his appeal against a cabinet committee decision on the award of a defence contract.

Question 122

Is the cabinet submissive to the prime minister? YES

Answer 122

• The prime minister can appoint his or her supporters to cabinet and dismiss ministers who disagree with his or her preferred policy.
• The prime minister has significant control over the cabinet agenda, steering and summarising discussions as they see fit and without having to call a vote.
• Many decisions are taken outside of the cabinet, often in bilateral meetings between the prime minister and a cabinet minister.
• The Prime Minister’s Office has expanded and plays a greater role in directing and coordinating policy across government.
• The prime minister can claim a personal mandate from the public and their party.

Question 123

Is the cabinet submissive to the prime ministers? NO

Answer 123

• There are practical limits on the prime minister’s patronage powers: potential rivals may have strong claims for inclusion in the cabinet.
• Senior ministers can frustrate the prime minister’s policy preferences by working together to oppose them or by threatening to resign.
• Ministers with concerns about decisions that affect their department can refer issues to the cabinet as a final court of appeal.
• Government departments provide ministers with expertise and support.
• Senior ministers who are popular with the public or their party may gain additional influence.

Question 124

Collective ministerial responsibility

Answer 124

The cabinet is theoretically a united body. Ministers are usually members of the same party who stood on an agreed manifesto at the general election.

Question 125

Collective responsibilty EVAL

Answer 125

However, unity is undermined by departmental and personal rivalries. As well as being members of the government, ministers are also heads of government departments, whose interests they fight for in cabinet. Money and influence are scarce resources for which ministers must bargain. Departments provide ministers with authority, policy advice and technical information, so they may be tempted to act as departmental chiefs rather than members of a collegiate body.

Question 126

Three main elements of collective responsibility

Answer 126

-secrecy
-binding decisons
-confidence vote

Question 127

Secrecy

Answer 127

Ministers must keep the details of discussions in the cabinet system secret. This ensures that sensitive information does not enter the
public domain and prevents differences of opinion from being revealed.

Question 128

Binding decisions

Answer 128

Once a decision is reached in the cabinet system, it becomes binding on all ministers regardless of whether they had opposed it or were not directly involved in decision making. Those unable to accept this should resign or expect to be dismissed. Senior ministers who have resigned because they disagreed with government policy include Robin Cook (2003) and Iain Duncan Smith (2016). The Blair and Brown governments saw some ministers
resigning in an attempt to force a change of leader

Question 129

Confidence vote

Answer 129

The government must resign if it is defeated in
a vote of confidence (i.e. one explicitly concerning the life of the government). This last happened in 1979 when James Callaghan’s Labour government lost a vote of confidence after its bill on Scottish devolution was defeated in the Commons.

Question 130

Examples of ministerial resignation over collective responsibility

Answer 130

• Iain Duncan Smith, Secretary of state for work and pensions, 2016, opposes cuts to disability benefits in budget
• Norman Baker, Minister of state Home Office, 2014, opposed policy on home affairs.

Question 131

Exceptions to collective ministerial responsibility

Answer 131

Formal exceptions to the concept of collective ministerial responsibility have been agreed by the prime minister and cabinet in exceptional circumstances.

Question 132

What are the exceptions of collective ministerial responsibility

Answer 132

• temporary suspension during referendums
• coalition
• free votes

Question 133

Temporary suspension during referendums

Answer 133

On rare occasions, prime ministers have suspended collective responsibility temporarily to prevent ministerial resignations. Harold Wilson allowed ministers to campaign for either a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’ vote during the 1975 referendum on the European Economic Community (EEC), despite the government supporting a ‘yes’ vote. This allowed a government that was divided on Europe to function in a more united fashion on other issues.

Question 134

Conservative lib dem referendum collective ministerial responsibility

Answer 134

Conservative and Liberal Democrat ministers were permitted by the coalition agreement to campaign on opposite sides in the 2011 alternative vote referendum.

Question 135

2016 EU referendum collective ministerial responsibility

Answer 135

In the 2016 EU referendum, Cameron also allowed ministers to take a personal decision to campaign to leave the EU, even though the government’s position was to support EU membership. They were, however, denied access to civil service resources to support their position on the EU and were required to support the government’s position on all other issues. Five cabinet ministers (plus Boris Johnson, who attended cabinet but was not a full member) campaigned to leave the EU.

Question 136

Coalition

Answer 136

The 2010 Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement identified four issues on which Liberal Democrat ministers would not be bound by collective responsibility. They were permitted to abstain on the construction of new nuclear power stations, tax allowances for married couples, and higher education funding, and to make the case against renewal of the Trident nuclear deterrent. Ministers were also free to campaign on different sides in the 2011 referendum on the alternative vote. But collective responsibility also broke down where significant differences emerged between the coalition partners.

Question 137

Lib dem coalition collective responsibilty

Answer 137

The Liberal Democrats responded to the abandonment of legislation on House of Lords reform by withdrawing support for constituency boundary changes, with their ministers voting against the changes in 2013. As the general election neared, the trade-off between government unity and party distinctiveness became more difficult to manage.

Question 138

2014 Private members bill collective responsibility

Answer 138

Most Liberal Democrat ministers voted in favour of a 2014 private members’ bill proposing exceptions to the government’s ‘bedroom tax’, while Conservative ministers opposed it. Conservative ministers voted in favour of a private members’ bill proposing that an EU referendum be held by the end of 2017 but Liberal Democrats did not.

Question 139

Free votes

Answer 139

Free votes may be granted to ministers as well as backbench MPs on issues of conscience. Labour’s 1997 election manifesto promised a free vote on legislation to ban fox hunting. Cameron allowed a free vote on the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill in 2013. Two cabinet ministers voted against the bill.

Question 140

Strains on collective responsibility

Answer 140

• leaks
• dissent and non-resignation
• prime ministerial dominance

Question 141

leaks

Answer 141

Disgruntled ministers and their advisers may leak information on cabinet discussions to the media. They may want dissatisfaction about the policy or the conduct of government to be aired, but do not want to go public with their criticism. Cabinet discussions have also been revealed in books written by former ministers such as Ed Balls and Nick Clegg.

Question 142

dissent and non-resignation

Answer 142

Cabinet ministers who oppose important aspects of government policy have survived in office even when their concerns have been made public. ‘Wets’ (one-nation Conservatives) in Thatcher’s first cabinet scarcely concealed their opposition to her economic policy. None resigned and Thatcher dismissed them only when her position was secure. Liberal Democrat ministers were openly critical of some coalition policies 2010–15, but only one junior minister (Norman Baker) resigned over policy differences.

Question 143

Prime ministerial dominance

Answer 143

Some cabinet ministers who served under Thatcher and Blair claimed that the prime minister had undermined collective responsibility by ignoring the cabinet. Michael Heseltine, Nigel Lawson and Sir Geoffrey Howe all cited Thatcher’s contempt for collegiality when resigning. Mo Mowlam and Clare Short complained that Blair did not consult cabinet sufficiently.

Question 144

Collective responsibilty vs Individual responsibility

Answer 144

Collective:
The principle that all members of the government are responsible as a group. It has three main elements:
-Discussions in government should be kept secret.
-Decisions made in government are binding on all ministers.
-The government as a whole must resign if defeated on a vote of confidence in parliament.

Individual:
The principle that ministers are accountable to parliament for their personal conduct, the general conduct of their department and the policies they and their department pursue, and the actions of officials within their department. Governments have redefined the convention so that ministers should not be held personally responsible for:
-decisions made in their department without their knowledge
-operational matters handled by officials in departments or executive agencies

Question 145

Individual ministerial responsibility

Answer 145

The principle that ministers are responsible to parliament for their personal conduct and that of their department.

Question 146

Individual responsbility

Answer 146

The principle of individual ministerial responsibility means that ministers are accountable to parliament for their own personal conduct, the general conduct of their department and the policies they and their department pursue. The convention is not a rigid one.

Question 147

ministerial accountabilty vs individual in government

Answer 147

Governments have long drawn a distinction between ministerial accountability (i.e. a minister’s duty to give an account to parliament) and their individual responsibility. In 1954, home secretary Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe stated that ministers cannot be held responsible for decisions taken by civil servants without their knowledge, or which they disagreed with. Ministers are not obliged to resign if failings are traceable to the action (or inaction) of civil servants, but they are constitutionally responsible for informing parliament of the actions of their department.

Question 148

1966 scott report

Answer 148

The 1996 Scott Report on the sale of arms to Iraq stated that ministers had a duty to be as open as possible, withholding information only when disclosure would not be in the public interest, but ministers were culpable only if they misled parliament ‘knowingly’. The Ministerial Code states that ministers must give ‘accurate and truthful information to Parliament … [those who] knowingly mislead Parliament will be expected to offer their resignation’. Immigration minister Beverley Hughes resigned in 2004 after admitting that she had unwittingly given parliament a ‘misleading impression’ on checks on migrants from eastern Europe.

Question 149

policy and operations

Answer 149

A further distinction is that between policy and operations. Ministers are responsible for policy, but officials are responsible for day-to-day
operational matters. The head of the UK Border Force, Brodie Clark, resigned in 2011 after border controls were relaxed without ministerial agreement. He went beyond a pilot scheme requiring fewer checks on passengers by also suspending some passport checks, action which had not been authorised by home secretary Theresa May. The transfer of policy implementation functions from government departments to executive agencies has added to the complexity surrounding ministerial responsibility.

Question 150

In what circumstances do minsisters resign?

Answer 150

• mistakes made within departments
• policy failure
  -personal misconduct
  -political pressure

Question 151

mistakes made within departments

Answer 151

Agriculture minister Sir Thomas Dugdale resigned in 1954 when mistakes made by civil servants in the Crichel Down case came to light Such cases are rare. Reports into the sale of arms to Iraq (1996) and BSE (2000) uncovered mistakes in departments but ministers survived. Ministers also remained in post when errors by civil servants forced the cancellation of competition for the West Coast Main Line franchise in 2012.

Question 152

Policy failure

Answer 152

Resignations following policy failure include that
of chancellor of the exchequer James Callaghan after the 1967 devaluation of sterling, although he became home secretary in the ensuing cabinet reshuffle. However, Norman Lamont did not resign as chancellor when sterling was devalued after being forced out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) in 1992. Foreign secretary Lord Carrington resigned after Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in 1982 (see the case study on page 140) but defence secretary John Nott remained in office as Thatcher refused to accept his resignation.

Question 153

Personal misconduct

Answer 153

Ministers are expected to follow the ‘seven principles of public life’ set out by the 1995 Nolan Committee on Standards in Public Life and included in the Ministerial Code. They are selflessness, integrity, objectivity, accountability, openness, honesty and leadership. The Nolan Committee was set up after the ‘cash for questions’ case which led to the resignations of Neil Hamilton and Tim Smith. Ministers who break the Ministerial Code are expected to resign (as Liam Fox did in 2011). Peter Mandelson and David Blunkett both left the Blair cabinet twice after allegations about their private interests and/ or conduct in office (see the case study on page 142). Expenses scandals and criminal investigations have also brought about resignations. A number of ministers have remained in office despite press revelations about their private lives, but exceptions include Cecil Parkinson (who resigned in 1983) and Brooks Newmark (who resigned in 2014).

Question 154

Personal pressure

Answer 154

The interpretation of this category can be quite loose because it covers resignations that are not attributable to a single policy problem or scandal. Instead, they follow a period of sustained pressure from parliament, the party or the press about a minister’s performance. Chief whip Andrew Mitchell resigned in 2012, weeks after he was alleged to have insulted police officers at the entrance to Downing Street, after pressure on his position escalated. A minister is unlikely to remain in office if the prime minister considers ongoing negative publicity to be too damaging to the government.

Question 155

Examples of ministerial resignations over individual responsibility

Answer 155

• Brooks Newmark, minister for civil society, cabinet office, 2014, personal misconduct - sent explicit images to a undercover reporter
• Maria miller, secretary of state for culture, media and sport, 2014, personal misconduct - past expenses claims

Question 156

Cabinet government

Answer 156

A system of government in which executive power is vested in a cabinet, whose members exercise collective responsibility, rather than a single office

Question 157

Prime ministerial government

Answer 157

A system of government in which the prime minister is the dominant actor and is able to bypass the cabinet.

Question 158

Cabinet government or prime-ministerial government?

Answer 158

For much of the twentieth century, the main debate about executive power was whether the UK still had a system of cabinet government or had developed one of prime-ministerial government. In his classic text The English Constitution (1867), Walter Bagehot described a system of cabinet government in which the prime minister was ‘first among equals’ (or primus inter pares) but decision making was a collective endeavour. By the second half of the twentieth century, the cabinet had been weakened and the powers of the prime minister had expanded. Proponents of the prime- ministerial government thesis argued that the prime minister was now the dominant actor and bypassed the cabinet when taking key decisions.

Question 159

Power in cabinet

Answer 159

Power is not located inevitably in one or the other; instead it is shared. Decline in the power of the cabinet does not inevitably mean that the prime minister is dominant. Instead, the prime minister needs the support of cabinet ministers and officials to achieve his or her objectives.

Question 160

Professor George Jones PM power

Answer 160

Professor George Jones uses the image of an elastic band to explain prime-ministerial power. He argues that the power resources available to the prime minister are not static but vary over time. Thatcher stretched the elastic band with her dominant leadership and tendency to ignore the concerns of her cabinet. The elastic band initially stretched to accommodate her style of leadership but Thatcher eventually stretched it too far. Then the elastic band snapped back as some cabinet ministers resigned and others finally withdrew their support for the prime minister during the 1990 Conservative leadership election, bringing about her downfall.

Question 161

external factors relating to power

Answer 161

The power of the prime minister also varies according to external factors (e.g. policy success, government popularity) and the leadership style and skills of the prime minister. Political context matters. Political success, public popularity (see Figure 6.4) and a large parliamentary majority (see Figure 6.6) strengthen a prime minister’s position. But policy failure, divisions within their party and unforeseen crises can weaken them. For Harold Macmillan, it was ‘events, dear boy, events’ that a prime minister feared.

Question 162

Political leadership

Answer 162

The exercise of power over public policy making by an individual or institution.

Question 163

PM’s poltical leadership

Answer 163

A prime minister’s political leadership skills are also important. Being a good communicator, having vision and political will, and being able to manage colleagues may all contribute to success in the role.

Question 164

Richard Heffernan describes a system in which the prime minister is the pre-eminent figure because they automatically have four institutional power resources:

Answer 164

• legal head of the government (e.g. appointing ministers)
• leadership of the government (e.g. setting the policy agenda)
• the Prime Minister’s Office
• setting the political agenda (e.g. through their party and the media)

Question 165

The prime minister will be predominant (i.e. the stronger or main element) if they combine effective use of these institutional power resources with their own personal power resources:

Answer 165

• leadership ability and reputation
• association with political success
• electoral popularity
• a high standing within their party

Question 166

Predominant vs pre-eminent PM’s

Answer 166

Thatcher and Blair were predominant prime ministers, while Brown and Cameron were pre-eminent.

Question 167

Monopoly of power

Answer 167

No prime minister has a monopoly of power: they have to work with ministers and must respond to parliamentary and public opinion. The prime minister leads but does not command the executive, and directs rather than controls its agenda.

Question 168

Presidentialisation

Answer 168

The idea that UK prime ministers have taken on some of the characteristics of presidents.

Question 169

Has the prime minister become presidential?

Answer 169

Professor Michael Foley argues that the office of prime minister has become more presidential: a de facto British presidency has emerged.

Question 170

There are three trends central to presidentialisation:

Answer 170

• personalised leadership
• public outrerach
• spatial leadership

Question 171

personalised leadership

Answer 171

The prime minister is expected to be a
dominant political personality who stamps his or her imprint on the government and imposes a personal vision. Thatcher was a conviction politician whose ideology set the political agenda, while Blair and Cameron modernised their parties. Thatcher and Blair were personally associated with major policy initiatives. The personalisation of leadership is also evident in election campaigns and party organisation. Election victory is treated as a personal mandate for the prime minister. The introduction of televised leaders’ debates in the 2010 general election campaign reinforced the focus on party leaders.

Question 172

Public outreach

Answer 172

Political leaders have become public commodities. The media spotlight falls on the prime minister to a greater extent than on any other minister. The prime minister is expected to connect with the popular mood. He or she claims to represent the public interest and takes their message directly to the public through the popular media (e.g. on ‘soft format’ chat shows). Blair and Cameron were especially effective communicators.

Question 173

Spatial leadership

Answer 173

A sense of distance has been created between the prime minister and his or her government and party. The prime minister relies more on his or her own inner circle of advisers
than on the cabinet system, as in Blair’s ‘sofa government’ and the ‘Quad’ (Cameron, Nick Clegg, George Osborne and Danny Alexander) in the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. Blair and Cameron presented themselves as outsiders in their own parties.

Question 174

focus on leader stregthen vs weaken

Answer 174

The focus on the leader has strengthened the position of the prime minister but it also creates problems. Just as the prime minister gains credit for policy success, so they are blamed personally for policy or personal failings. Blair’s position was weakened after the invasion of Iraq, Brown was criticised for his inability to connect with the public, and Cameron resigned after losing the EU referendum.

Question 175

Has the Prime Minister become more presidential? YES

Answer 175

• Leadership in the executive has been personalised, with the prime minister expected to impose his or her personality and agenda.
• Prime ministers increasingly rely on a close circle of senior ministers and advisers.
• Prime ministers have created a ‘strategic space’
  between themselves and their governments, distancing themselves from other actors in the executive.
• Prime ministers appeal to the public directly, through the media, and claim a personal mandate from the electorate.
• Prime ministers have additional authority as party leaders, where they are elected by MPs and members, and exercise personalised leadership.

Question 176

Has the prime minister become more presidential? NO

Answer 176

• The prime minister leads but cannot command the executive, particularly in coalition, and directs rather than controls the agenda.
• Senior ministers have resources of their own, including support from government departments.
• The prime minister needs the support of ministers and officials to achieve his or her objectives.
• The prime minister’s position is strong only if he or she enjoys policy success and popular approval, and makes effective use of his or her own personal abilities.
• Support from the party is not unconditional and unpopular leaders face concerted efforts to remove them.

Question 177

Presidential government

Answer 177

A system of government in which a single, directly elected chief executive governs. The executive branch is constitutionally separate from the legislature.

Question 178

Presidential government

Answer 178

A system of government in which a single, directly elected chief executive governs. The executive branch is constitutionally separate from the legislature.

Question 179

Criticisms of the presidential thesis

Answer 179

Critics argue that the notion of a British presidency misrepresents the nature of power within the core executive. It overstates the room for manoeuvre that a prime minister has and underestimates their dependence on cabinet ministers and their party. Crude versions of the thesis ignore the significant differences between the parliamentary system of government in the UK and the system of presidential government found in the USA. Michael Foley’s thesis does not claim, however, that the office of British prime minister is becoming the same as that of the US president. Nor has the UK become a presidential system of government.

Question 180

Secretary of state

Answer 180

A government minister in charge of a major government department, such as health or education.

Question 181

Government ministers

Answer 181

There are more than 100 ministers in the government. Ministers are allocated positions in government departments. Senior ministers often hold the rank of secretary of state, sit in the cabinet and head government departments. Below them in the hierarchy come the minister of state and parliamentary under-secretary. These junior ministers are given specific policy roles in a department. The Home Office has one secretary of state, four ministers of state (responsible for security, immigration, policing and the fire service, and devolution) and two parliamentary under-secretaries (responsible for internet security and tackling crime and extremism). Parliamentary private secretaries are unpaid assistants to ministers but do not have ministerial status.

Question 182

Roles preformed by ministers

Answer 182

• policy leadership
• representing departmental interest
• departmental management
  -relations with parliament

Question 183

policy leadership

Answer 183

A minister does not have the time or knowledge to play a hands-on role in all detailed policy but plays an important role in policy initiation and selection. Cameron granted ministers greater policy autonomy than was the norm under Blair and Brown.

Question 184

Representing departmental interests

Answer 184

Ministers represent the interests of their department in the cabinet. They represent the government in the Council of the European Union.

Question 185

departmental management

Answer 185

Ministers play a strategic role in managing their department, setting objectives and shaping the internal distribution of resources.

Question 186

relations with parliament

Answer 186

Ministers steer bills through parlaiment. They are accountable to parliament for decisions taken in their department, answer questions in the House of Commons and appear before select committees.

Question 187

Government departments

Answer 187

Government departments are the main administrative units of central government. They are located in the Whitehall area of London — hence the use of the term ‘Whitehall’ to describe the bureaucratic apparatus of central government. In major departments, a cabinet minister is the political head and the permanent secretary is the most senior civil servant.

Question 188

functions of government departments

Answer 188

• providing policy advice to ministers
• managing public spending
• fostering relationships with interested parties, such as pressure groups
• policy implementation

Question 189

how are deartments organised

Answer 189

Departments are organised according to the policy area they are responsible for (e.g. health) or the sections of society they serve (e.g. those receiving social security benefits). The territorial extent of their function varies. The work of some departments (e.g. the Ministry of Defence) covers the whole of the UK, but on devolved matters, some (e.g. the Department for Health) deal mainly with policy for England. Whitehall departments oversee the provision of public services, but responsibility for much day-to-day policy delivery has been transferred to semi- autonomous executive agencies (such as HM Prison Service).

Question 190

The most powerful department

Answer 190

The Treasury is the most powerful department. It controls public spending and other departments require its approval to undertake major new financial commitments. Spending reviews set out the spending limits for each government department and chancellors have used these to shape policy in high-spending departments such as health and social security. The contents of the budget are not revealed to the cabinet until hours before the chancellor’s announcement.

Question 191

Attorney generals office

Answer 191

The Attorney General’s Office is the department responsible for providing legal advice to government. The two ministers within it, the Attorney General and the Solicitor General, are known as the Law Officers. The Attorney General is principal legal adviser on EU and international law, human rights and devolved powers. Draft legislation must be approved by the Law Officers. Advice provided by the Law Officers is occasionally controversial. The 2016 Chilcot Report stated that the circumstances in which decisions were taken about the legality of the 2003 invasion of Iraq were ‘far from satisfactory’.

Question 192

Civil servants

Answer 192

Government departments are staffed by civil servants: that is, officials appointed by the Crown. Some civil servants provide policy advice to ministers. In doing so, they may have advantages over ministers, such as experience, expertise and access to information. Civil servants are required to provide impartial advice but can define which policy options are practicable and affordable.

Question 193

Civil servant

Answer 193

An official employed in a civil capacity by the Crown, responsible for policy advice or policy implementation.

Question 194

The civil service is a bureaucracy that has a hierarchical structure and has traditionally operated according to four principles:

Answer 194

• impartilaity
• anonymity
• permanence
• meritocracy

Question 195

Impartiality

Answer 195

Civil servants serve the Crown rather than the
government of the day. They are expected to be politically neutral and
not become involved in overtly party political tasks.

Question 196

Anonymity

Answer 196

Individual civil servants should not be identified as the author of advice to ministers. Some may be called before parliamentary committees, but they give evidence under the direction of ministers.

Question 197

Permanence

Answer 197

Civil servants stay in their posts when there is a change of government.

Question 198

Meritocracy

Answer 198

Civil servants are not political appointments. Instead, the civil service is staffed by generalists, recruited through competitive exams and interviews.

Question 199

policy making and implementation civil service

Answer 199

The policy-making and policy implementation roles of the civil service were separated in the 1980s. Civil servants working in Whitehall continue to advise ministers but policy implementation functions and the delivery of public services were transferred to executive agencies. They operate at arm’s length from government departments. The number of civil servants has been cut from 732,000 in 1979 to 392,000 in 2016.

Question 200

Special Adviser

Answer 200

A temporary political appointment made by a government minister.

Question 201

Spin doctor

Answer 201

A special adviser employed to promote the image of the minister and his or her policy in the media.

Question 202

Special advisers and spin doctors

Answer 202

Ministers employ special advisers to carry out policy advice or media liaison roles, the latter being known as spin doctors. Special advisers are political appointments employed as temporary civil servants. In 2015, there were 93 special advisers across government, more than double the number employed in the early 1990s. Of these, 32 worked for the prime minister.

Question 203

Policy Imapct social reform

Answer 203

The 1960s was a period of significant social and
cultural change in Britain. Many of these changes occurred autonomously of government, but Wilson’s Labour government also played a key role in changing the legal landscape.

Question 204

The divorce reform act 1969

Answer 204

The Divorce Reform Act 1969 made divorce easier by introducing the principle of irretrievable breakdown: couples could divorce if they had been separated for 2 years and fault did not have to be established.

Question 205

Social reform 60s

Answer 205

Race relations legislation outlawed direct discrimination on the grounds of race, colour
and ethnicity. Three landmark private members’ bills abolished the death penalty, decriminalised sex between men in private, and legalised abortion up to 24 weeks of pregnancy. Without government backing and Labour’s large parliamentary majority after the 1966 general election, these changes would have been more difficult to achieve.

Question 206

Changes in education 60s

Answer 206

The government brought about important changes in education, encouraging local authorities to convert grammar schools into comprehensives — a key Labour commitment. It also established polytechnics, which focused on vocational education, and the Open University.

Question 207

Policy implementation: European integration

Answer 207

The UK’s relationship with the European Union (EU) and its predecessors has posed problems for UK prime ministers since the 1960s. In opposition, Harold Wilson had opposed Harold Macmillan’s failed application to join the European Economic Community (EEC). But in government Wilson also applied to join, only to suffer the same fate as his predecessor when French president Charles de Gaulle vetoed the membership for a second time in 1967. When Labour returned to office in 1974, the UK was a member of the EEC having joined the previous year. But most Labour MPs opposed membership, viewing the EEC as a ‘capitalist club’.

Question 208

European integration resolve

Answer 208

In an attempt to resolve the issue, Wilson undertook a limited renegotiation of the terms of EEC membership and then called a referendum on whether the UK should remain in the EEC under the new terms. In a highly unusual move, Wilson suspended collective responsibility during the referendum campaign. Most cabinet ministers campaigned to remain in the EEC but five campaigned to leave. Wilson himself played little role in the campaign. The result appeared decisive: a 2 : 1 vote in favour of membership. But within 6 years, Labour had split and the issue of European integration continued to trouble UK prime ministers.

Question 209

Policy impact: trade union reform and privatisation

Answer 209

The industrial relations landscape was changed profoundly by the governments of Margaret Thatcher as five major pieces of legislation weakened the trade unions. But the initial approach was cautious as secretary of state for employment James Prior persuaded Thatcher of the case for gradual reform. The pace of change increased when Prior was replaced by Thatcher’s ally, Norman Tebbit, in 1981. The government’s victory in the miners’ strike of 1984–85, a particularly bitter industrial dispute, also proved pivotal.

Question 210

Thatchers privitisation programme

Answer 210

The Thatcher governments’ privatisation programme saw the sale of shares in nationalised industries such as British Gas, British Airways and electricity and water companies. Again, a radical policy emerged gradually after the successful sale of shares in British Telecom in 1984 prompted the government to undertake further privatisations. Policy was motivated partly by ideology (the desire for greater competition and a smaller state), but political considerations (e.g. raising revenue and winning votes) were decisive.

Question 211

Policy Problems: Poll Tax

Answer 211

The poll tax, officially known as the Community Charge, is a prime example of a policy disaster — a policy that fails spectacularly to achieve its objectives and causes intensive disruption to the political process. A local tax that was paid by all taxpayers (with some exceptions), the poll tax replaced the domestic rates, which were based
on property value and only paid by property owners. Advocates of the poll tax argued that if every person had to contribute towards the cost of local services through a flat-rate tax, local authorities would come under pressure to provide these services more efficiently. But the new tax proved hugely unpopular as millions of voters who had never before had to pay local taxes received large bills, and blamed the Thatcher government. The tax was also regressive, taking a higher percentage of the income of the poor than the rich, and many viewed it as unfair. Riots in London preceded the introduction of the tax in England
in 1990. Councils then found the poll tax difficult to administer and collect, as many people refused to pay.

Question 212

the roots os policy disaster…

Answer 212

The roots of the policy disaster lay within government. Ministers had to act quickly on local taxation as a major review of the rates was due, but checks and balances within the cabinet system failed. In particular, warnings from the chancellor and Treasury were not given due consideration and local authorities were not consulted fully. Thatcher pushed the proposal through government and parliament without major amendment. By late 1990, many Conservative MPs recognised the electoral damage Thatcher’s flagship policy was causing and voted against her in the Conservative leadership contest. The poll tax was replaced by the council tax under John Major.

Question 213

Policy Impact constitutional reform

Answer 213

The Blair governments introduced the most extensive constitutional reforms of modern times — devolution, reform of the House of Lords, new electoral systems, the Supreme Court and the Human Rights Act. However, Blair did not play a great role in policy initiative or design. He inherited policy commitments from John Smith, his predecessor as Labour leader, and worked on them with Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown — including in a cabinet committee attended by Liberal Democrats.

Question 214

Blair’s interest in constitutional reforms

Answer 214

Blair was not greatly interested in constitutional reform. His doubts helped kill off proposals for electoral reform for Westminster and devolution to the English regions. Changes to the role of the lord chancellor were botched and Blair also came to regret introducing the Freedom of Information Act 2000.

Question 215

Northern Ireland and Blair

Answer 215

The prime minister did play a major role in the Northern Ireland peace process, notably in the negotiations on the 1998 Good Friday Agreement. He sidelined secretary
of state for Northern Ireland, Mo Mowlam, who was distrusted by some unionists, and offered personal guarantees on weapons decommissioning and prisoner releases.

Question 216

Policy problems: the invasion in Iraq

Answer 216

Blair’s legacy is coloured by his decision to support US president George W. Bush and commit UK forces to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. While Bush made it clear that the removal of Iraq president Saddam Hussein was a core objective of US policy, Blair focused on removing weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Much of Blair’s case rested upon intelligence assessments that Iraq could launch WMD within 45 minutes. But WMD were never found and the intelligence reports were later discredited. After the removal of Saddam, Iraq descended into anarchy. Opinion polls registered a sharp decline in public trust of Blair, and his standing in the Labour Party was badly damaged.

Question 217

Iraq policy problems

Answer 217

A series of official reports were highly critical of decisions taken in government prior to the invasion. The 2004 report by Lord Butler noted that although the cabinet was briefed on Iraq on 24 occasions in the year before the invasion, ministers were denied access to key papers. Blair’s preference for ‘sofa government’ had also reduced the scope for informed collective judgement. The 2016 Chilcot Report concluded that other policy options had not been properly explored, that Blair had disregarded warnings about the intelligence and the potential consequences of military action, and that cabinet had not considered legal advice carefully enough. The report highlighted the need for frank and informed collective ministerial discussion in future.

Question 218

Was coalition government a significant constraint on the power of David Cameron as prime minister? YES

Answer 218

• The Coalition Agreement for Stability and Reform set the number of Liberal Democrat cabinet ministers. Cameron could not dismiss or reshuffle Liberal Democrat ministers without Clegg’s approval.
• The government’s principal policies were set out in the Coalition Programme for Government, and the Liberal Democrats resisted deviation from it.
• Coalition required a more collective style of government, with key issues discussed in the cabinet system to ensure the agreement of both parties.
• The prime minister had to manage tensions between Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, in addition to dissent within the Conservative Party.

Question 219

Was coalition government a significant constraint on the power of David Cameron as prime minister? NO

Answer 219

• The prime minister retained significant patronage powers, such as creating and making appointments to cabinet committees.
• The prime minister determined the overall direction of government policy and shaped its response to new issues.
• Key decisions were taken by the prime minister in consultation with Clegg or in the ‘Quad’, where relations were often smoother than those between Blair and Brown.
• Forming a coalition gave Cameron a healthy parliamentary majority, and the coalition proved stable.

Question 220

UK/US comparisons

Answer 220

-The US president is head of state as well as head of government.The key formal source of the powers of the president is the US Constitution. It places significant limits on presidential power. Informal sources of presidential power (e.g. the use of executive orders and powers of persuasion) have also developed over time. The monarch is head of state in the UK. The powers of the prime minister are not set out in statute law.
- The US president is directly elected and can claim a personal mandate.Fixed-term elections take place every 4 years. The UK prime minister is not directly elected; he or she is leader of the largest party in the House of Commons. Fixed-term elections to the Commons take place every 5 years.
- In the USA, the separation of powers means that the executive does not dominate the legislature.The president cannot force Congress to accept his will: the president has some powers to veto legislation but Congress may override this. The legislature can only dismiss the president through impeachment. Divided government occurs when one political party holds the presidency but its rival controls Congress. In the UK, the executive exercises significant control over the legislature but the government must resign if it loses a vote of confidence in the Commons.