3 Neurotransmitters + Psychopharmacology

Question 1

Q: What is psychopharmacology?

Answer 1

A: Psychopharmacology is the study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system and behavior.

Question 2

Q: What are drug effects in psychopharmacology?

Answer 2

A: Drug effects refer to changes produced in physiological processes and behavior, with most drugs affecting synaptic transmission.

Question 3

Q: What is an antagonist in psychopharmacology?

Answer 3

A: An antagonist is a drug that opposes or inhibits the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.

Question 4

Q: What is an agonist in psychopharmacology?

Answer 4

A: An agonist is a drug that facilitates the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Question 5

Q: What are the main sites of action for drugs in psychopharmacology?

Answer 5

A: The main sites of action for drugs are the production of neurotransmitters, storage and release of neurotransmitters, effects on receptors, and effects on reuptake.

Question 6

Q: What are the two types of effects on receptors in psychopharmacology?

Answer 6

A: The two types of effects on receptors are direct agonist/antagonist, which binds to and activates or inhibits the receptor directly, and indirect agonist/antagonist, which attaches to a different binding site on the receptor and facilitates its action.

Question 7

Q: How do drugs affect reuptake or destruction of neurotransmitters?

Answer 7

A: Drugs can block reuptake by attaching to transporter molecules or prevent the enzyme that destroys neurotransmitters from working, thus prolonging the neurotransmitter’s presence in the synapse.

Question 8

Q: What is a placebo?

Answer 8

A: A placebo is an inert substance given to an organism instead of an active drug, often used as a control in experiments to control for the effects of mere administration.

Question 9

Q: What are placebo effects and nocebo effects?

Answer 9

A: Placebo effects are beneficial effects that occur due to the mere belief that one is receiving treatment, while nocebo effects are negative effects that occur after an intervention that should have no ill effects.

Question 10

Q: What are the two effects neurotransmitters can have on the postsynaptic membrane?

Answer 10

A: Neurotransmitters can either cause depolarization (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential - EPSP) or hyperpolarization (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential - IPSP).

Question 11

Q: What are the main neurotransmitters involved in synaptic communication in the brain?

Answer 11

A: Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter, while GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and glycine are the main inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Question 12

Q: What is acetylcholine (ACh) and where is it secreted?

Answer 12

A: Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter secreted by efferent axons of the central nervous system (CNS) and plays a role in muscular movement and various brain functions.

Question 13

Q: What are the effects of acetylcholine generally?

Answer 13

A: The effects of acetylcholine are generally facilitatory, involved in regulating REM sleep, dreaming, perceptual learning, and memory.

Question 14

Q: Where are the receptors for acetylcholine located?

Answer 14

A: The receptors for acetylcholine include nicotinic receptors (ionotropic) and muscarinic receptors (metabotropic), found at cholinergic synapses.

Question 15

Q: What are nicotinic receptors and where are they found?

Answer 15

A: Nicotinic receptors are ionotropic acetylcholine receptors stimulated by nicotine. They are found in the postsynaptic membrane of all autonomic ganglia, all neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), and some CNS pathways.

Question 16

Q: What are muscarinic receptors and where are they found?

Answer 16

A: Muscarinic receptors are metabotropic acetylcholine receptors. They are found in the parasympathetic nerves, influencing heart, smooth muscles, and glands. They are stimulated by muscarine and blocked by atropine.

Question 17

Q: How does atropine affect the action of acetylcholine?

Answer 17

A: Atropine blocks muscarinic receptors, preventing acetylcholine from depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane, and thus increasing heart rate among other effects.

Question 18

Q: What is botulinum toxin and how does it affect acetylcholine?

Answer 18

A: Botulinum toxin is an acetylcholine antagonist that prevents the release of acetylcholine from presynaptic neurons.
A: Botulinum toxin inhibits neuromuscular transmission, leading to muscle paralysis and potentially causing botulism.

Question 19

Q: What is black widow spider venom and how does it affect acetylcholine?

Answer 19

A: Black widow spider venom contains a toxin that acts as an acetylcholine agonist, triggering the release of acetylcholine from presynaptic neurons.

A: Black widow spider venom causes excessive release of acetylcholine, leading to symptoms such as muscle spasms, convulsions, and potentially respiratory failure.

Question 20

Q: What are the main monoamine neurotransmitters?

Answer 20

A: The main monoamine neurotransmitters are dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin.

Question 21

Q: What is dopamine’s role as a neurotransmitter?

Answer 21

A: Dopamine is involved in the reward pathway, natural rewards such as food, water, sex, and nurturing, and various brain functions including regulating movement and controlling attention.

Question 22

Q: What is addiction and how is it related to dopamine?

Answer 22

A: Addiction is a state in which an organism engages in compulsive behavior, with dopamine playing a role in reinforcing this behavior and leading to loss of control over limiting intake.

Question 23

Q: What is the dopamine pathway involved in addiction?

Answer 23

A: The dopamine pathway involved in addiction includes the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA).

Question 24

Q: What is tolerance and dependence in the context of dopamine?

Answer 24

A: Tolerance is a state where an organism no longer responds to a drug, while dependence is a state where an organism functions normally only in the presence of the drug, often leading to physical disturbance when the drug is withdrawn.

Question 25

Q: What is the nigrostriatal system and what is its role?

Answer 25

A: The nigrostriatal system starts in the substantia nigra and terminates in the basal ganglia, controlling movement. Degeneration of this system is associated with Parkinson’s disease, which can be treated with L-DOPA.

Question 26

Q: How does cocaine affect dopamine transmission?

Answer 26

A: Cocaine binds at dopaminergic synapses in the nucleus accumbens, inhibiting dopamine reuptake and leading to increased activation of the reward system.

Question 27

Q: What is serotonin and what are its functions?

Answer 27

A: Serotonin, also known as 5-HT, is involved in the regulation of mood, control of eating, sleep, dreaming, arousal, and pain regulation. It is mainly released from the raphe nuclei.

Question 28

Q: What is MDMA and how does it affect serotonin transmission?

Answer 28

A: MDMA, also known as “Ecstasy,” is a drug that serves as a noradrenergic and serotonergic agonist, leading to excitatory and hallucinogenic effects. It acts on serotonin transporters, preventing reuptake and increasing serotonin levels in the synapse.

Question 29

Q: What are the long-term effects of MDMA on serotonin levels?

Answer 29

A: MDMA use can lead to a drop in serotonin levels afterward, potentially contributing to depression. This is due to the depletion of serotonin stores in the brain.

Question 30

Q: What is norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and where is it secreted from?

Answer 30

A: Norepinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal gland, involved in the flight/fight response and stress regulation. It can be elevated in patients experiencing mania.

Question 31

Q: How can medications targeting norepinephrine be used to treat depression?

Answer 31

A: Medications that inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine can be used to treat depression by increasing its availability in the synaptic cleft.

Question 32

Q: What is epinephrine (adrenaline) and where is it secreted from?

Answer 32

A: Epinephrine is a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla and also functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain.

Question 33

Q: What are glutamate and GABA, and what are their roles in the brain?

Answer 33

A: Glutamate is an excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter, while GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. They play crucial roles in mood regulation and how we think and act. Imbalances in GABA are associated with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and anxiety.

Question 34

Q: What are benzodiazepines and how do they affect neurotransmission?

Answer 34

A: Benzodiazepines are anxiolytic drugs that act as indirect agonists for the GABA_A receptor, enhancing its inhibitory effects. They are used for their tranquilizing effects and include medications like Valium and Xanax.