3- Changes in the Cell Flashcards
1
Q
The 3 type of cell changes
A
Functional reversible
Structural reversible
Structural irreversibl
2
Q
Consequences of cell injury
A
morphological (structure) damage and functional damage, either causing the other
3
Q
Types of functional reversible
A
Cell & Tissue Accumulation
Adaptive Responses to Cell Changes
4
Q
Types of functional reversible - Cell & Tissue Accumulation
A
Hydropic changes
Fatty Changes
Residual bodies
Hyaline changes
5
Q
Hydropic changes aka
A
hydropic degeneration, cloudy swelling
6
Q
Hydropic changes causes a functional inability to produce
A
ATP
(mitochondrial damage)
7
Q
For the sodium to move out it requites ___
A
ATP
(for the Na/K pump)
8
Q
Na+ ions cannot be pumped out of the cell which increases _____
A
cellular osmotic pressure
9
Q
To balance the osmotic pressure
A
Water moves in
(causing cell swelling)
10
Q
As the convoluted tubules cells swell, the lumen size ______
A
decrease
11
Q
Define Poiseuille’s Law
A
The amount of fluid that flows through the opening (lumen) is proportional to the pressure difference at each end to the 4th power of the radius
12
Q
If lumen is decreased by 2 flow amount is
A
decreased by the power of 4
13
Q
Compress glomerular cells leads to
A
metabolite accumulation in the blood
kidney failure
14
Q
Fatty Changes aka
A
Steatosis
15
Q
Def: Fatty Changes
A
accumulation of triacylglycerids (fatty acids) in parenchymal cells
16
Q
Fatty Changes effect on cells
A
compress the cell contents moving them to the periphery of the cell
reducing function
can cause cell rupture
17
Q
Fatty changes most common sites
A
Liver (classic)
Kidney
Heart
18
Q
Fatty changes causes
A
Protein malnutrition
Intoxication
Cardiac anoxia
Obesity
Diabetes mellitus
19
Q
Define Anoxia
A
lack of Oxygen to drive reactions for lipoprotein synthesis
20
Q
Hepatocytes produce lipoproteins using
A
Free FA
AA
21
Q
Over consumption of alcohol damages hepatocytes leading to
A
accumulation of FA’s and swelling of cells
(liver fibrosis)
22
Q
Not enough amino acid in diet can lead to
A
FAs accumulate in the liver
23
Q
long term of fatty changes in hepatocytes can result in
A
liver failure
24
Q
define Residual bodies
A
scar/fragment of cell damage
25
Intracellular accumulation of residual bodies is related to the cell’s capacity to cope with
threatening bacteria
damaged organelles
26
Residual bodies mostly target
liver
kidney
nervous tissue
27
most common residual body, parts of subcellular membranes which are indigestible, pigment of aging, “brown atrophy
Lipofuscin granules
28
Lipofuscin granules aka
Lipochrome granules
29
Hyaline changes aka
Hyalinization
30
Hyaline changes types
Intracellular (reversible)
Intercellular (structural irreversible)
31
Intracellular hyaline changes subtypes
Reabsorption droplets
Mallory alcoholic hyaline
Russell bodies
Dutcher bodies
32
Reabsorption droplets happens in
renal proximal tubules
33
Def: Abnormal protein loss in the urine that the tubules attempt to reabsorb
proteinuria
34
Nephritic syndrome
minimal change disease
protein is deposited within the cells of the distal convoluted tubules
once excess protein excretion stops, the cells will release the deposited protein (reversible)
35
Mallory Alcoholic Hyaline aka
Mallory bodies
36
Mallory bodies are found within
hepatocytes
37
Mallory bodies result from
excsessive drinking
| (reversable)
38
Russell bodies are found in
cytoplasm of plamsa cells
39
Russell bodies are seen in patients with
Multiple myeloma
40
Define Multiple myeloma
malignant condition; uncontrolled proliferation and disorder function of plasma cells in bone marrow
41
Intranuclear (nucleus) accumulation of proteins are called
Dutcher bodies
42
Waldenström Macroglobulinemia
aka's
Hyperviscosity syndrome
Lymphoplasmocytic lymphoma
43
Define Waldenström Macroglobulinemia
A type of lymphoma due to a monoclonal tumor
44
Define monoclonal tumor
cancer of B lymphocytes resulting in overproduction of IgM
45
Increased IgM production leads to
increased thickness of blood
46
whay kind of bodies are commonly seen in monoclonal tumor
Russell bodies
Dutcher bodies
47
Hyline Intercellular changes are (reversible/irreversible)
irreversible
48
hardening of the arterioles due to hyaline (protein) accumulation is called
Hyaline arteriosclerosis
49
Hyaline arteriosclerosis causes
arterioles to become brittle and/or obstruction of lumen occurs
| (can lead to obliteration)
50
Within the brain, Hyaline arteriosclerosis can lead to
Lacunar infarction
Parenchymal (intracerebral) Hemorrhagic stroke
51
Lacunar infarction includes
thalamus
putamen
globus pallidus
52
Define Parenchymal (intracerebral) Hemorrhagic stroke
rupture of hardened arterioles, cases of hypertension
53
a generic term for a **variety of proteinaceous materials** that are abnormally **deposited in tissue** interstitium in a spectrum of clinical disorders, mainly **autoimmune**
Amyloid
54
Name of “diseses” caused by amyloid
Amyloidosis
55
Amyloidosis leads to death within
1-2 years
56
primary reason of Amyloidosis
idiopathic
57
amyliod deposits are found between
cells in the interstitial fluid of the brain, liver,
kidney, and skin
58
Kidney amyloidosis characterized by
extreme proteinuria
59
list the Adaptive Responses to Cell Changes (Functional reversible)
Alternative metabolism
Altered Size
Inadequate Neurological Stimulus
Inadequate Hormonal Stimulus
60
Cells use of alternative pathways in order to obtain \_\_\_\_
ATP
61
Oxidative phosphorylation produce ____ ATP
32
62
Anaerobic Glycolysis produces ____ ATP
2
63
Altered Size devided into:
*(Functional reversible/Adaptive Responses/altered size)*
Hypertrophy
Atrophy
64
Define hypertrophy
organ or cell enlargement due to increased demands
65
in Muscle hypertrophy, does the cells replicate or enlarge?
Enlarge
66
What causes left ventricular hypertrophy
increases the demand on the heart and arterial system
67
normal ratio left to right ventricle is
Left 2:1 right
68
Define atrophy
shrinkage due to decreased demand
69
2 types of atrophy are
disuse atrophy
pressure atrophy
70
Def: loss of bone mass, is one form of disuse atrophy
(not a primary cause)
Osteoporosis
71
Osteoporosis is caused by
**disuse** but also commonly due to **hormonal changes**
sexual changes (decreased androgens)
72
Osteoperosis Major locations are
primary bones
(ribs, vertebral bodies, neck of femur, wrist bones)
73
Osteoperosis can result in
Bone fractures (rib, fumer ...)
Vertebral body compression
74
Most vurnable popluation to osteperosis are
Caucasian Blonde women
75
Least vurnable popluation to osteperosis are
African American women
76
almost all of our bone mass is accumulated before the age of
25 - 30
77
normal rate of bone loss is
0.7% per year
78
Why obese people have lower changes of getting osteoporosis?
fat accumulates estrogens and can continue to release it post menopause
increased weight bearing
79
Type of atrophy results from Cells/Tissue compresstion or blood supply is compressed
pressure atrophy
80
Poliomyelitis is an example of
| (what type of changes)
Inadequate Neurological Stimulus
Functional reversible/Adaptive Responses to Cell Changes/Inadequate stimulus
81
# Define Poliomyelitis
Viral (contagious) loss of neuronal stimulus to muscles
82
where does the neuron damage happens in poliomeylitis?
anterior horn of spinal cord (motor)
83
Poliomylites leads to
Decreased motor function due to atrophy of skeletal muscles
84
The only way to prevent Poliomyelitis is by
polio vaccine
85
2 examples of Inadequate Hormonal Stimulus
Hoshimoto’s Thyroiditis
Grave’s Disease
86
Hoshimoto’s Thyroiditis
ultra-antibodies attach to \_\_\_\_\_\_
TSH Receptors
87
Hoshimoto’s Thyroiditis
Attachment of ABs to recpetors will prevent
TSH from the anterior pituitary to bind
88
Hoshimoto’s Thyroiditis
What resutls from the bockage of TSH receptors
Thyroid gland atrophy
stops production of thyroid hormone
89
Most common cause of Hypothyroidism in the US
Hoshimoto’s Thyroiditis
90
First autoimmune disease discovered, in 1913 is:
Hoshimoto’s Thyroiditis
91
The main cause of Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
Autoimmune, idiopathic
92
how graves disease is different than Hashimoto’s
Antibodies bind to TSH receptors and mimic TSH
93
Graves disease results in
excess production of thyroid hormone
| (Hyperthyroidism)
94
Graves disease
What happens to thyroid cells after increasing their function
become hypertrophies
95
Graves disease
Female to male ratio
Female 2 : 1 Male
96
Graves is Characterized by
goiter
exophthalmos
97
Define exophthalmos
bulging of the eye
98
A category of cell chages:
cell is damaged and the nuclear envelope is intact the cell can survive
Structural reversible
99
4 examples of Structural reversible
Loss of Ribosomes
Mitochondria swell
Blebs
Myelin figures
100
Define belbs:
pouching of the cell membrane (bulge of cytoplasm)
101
how many belbs can a cell has before it become irreversible?
1-2 belbs reversible
102
Myelin figures is due to
dissection of the cell membrane
103
How many myelin figures can the cell handel?
1 – 2 is reversible
104
List the Structural irreversible changes
Nucleus changes
Necrosis
Apoptosis
Pigment Accumulation
105
List the the types of Nucleus Changes
(Irrevesible changes/ nucleus changes)
Karyolysis
Pkynosis
Karyorrhexis
106
Define Karyolysis
dissolution of the nucleus
107
Define Pkynosis
condensation of the nucleus
108
# Define Karyorrhexis
fragmentation of the nucleus
109
List the typs of necrosis
Coagulative necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Casseous necrosis
Gummatous necrosis
Zenker’s necrosis
Fat necrosis
Fibrinoid necrosis
Gangrene
110
Define Necrosis
Death of cells or tissues through injury or disease; especially in a localized area of the
body
(Condition of cell death)
111
Necrotic tissue is normally digested by
cell **lysosome** enzymes
with some **phagocytosis**
112
Def: Type of necrosis that implies the preservation of the **basic outline** of the **coagulated cells** for a span of at least some days, allowing the body to **attempt to heal**
Coagulative necrosis
113
Coagulative necrosis is characterized by
size, shape, and strength are preserved
denaturation of cytoplasmic proteins
breakdown of cell organelles
cell swelling
114
an example of coagulative necrosis is
Myocardial Infarction
115
Myocardial Infarction is Ischemia results in
coagulative necrosis
heart undergoes fibrosis to heal dead tissue
116
Define Infarction
death of an area of tissue caused by ischema (lack of blood supply)
117
List the 2 types of infracts
White
Red
118
White infarct: develops in tissue with _____ bloody supply
| (number of blood supplies)
one
119
Example of white infract
heart
spleen
120
Red Infarct: develops in tissue with _____ blood supply
| (number of blood supplies)
2 or more
121
Examples of Red Infarct
lung (hemorrhagic lung infarction)
Liver
Intestine
122
Type of necrosis: complete digestion of dead cells, resulting in the transformation of these tissues
into a liquid viscous mass
Liquefaction necrosis
123
Liquefaction necrosis can occor more often in
(which system)
CNS
124
an example of Liquefaction necrosis is
Ischemic stroke (infarction)
125
in Ischemic stroke (infarction)
for brain to remove necrotic tissue it takes
about 6 month
126
Ischemic stroke (infarction) results in
**Holes** in the brain, filled with CSF and **white**
colored **tissue**
127
Type of necrosis that looks like cheese/curds-like
Casseous necrosi
128
in casseous necrosis, Amorphous granular debris seemingly composed of
fragmented cells
coagulated cells
129
in casseous necrosis morphous granular debris enclosed within
a distinctive inflammatory border
130
a distinctive inflammatory border aka
granulomatous reaction
131
2 examples of casseous necrosis
Tuberculosis
Leprosy
132
Tuberculosis is a respiratory infection caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
133
how does TB effect the lungs
massive melting of lung tissue, destroying blood vessels
134
TB destruction in lungs leads to
| (#1 cause of death in TB)
perfuse hemorrhage
135
Define Leprosy
chronic bacterial infection causing nerve damage; contagious disease
136
Gummatous necrosis occurs only in
(what disease)
Syphillis (3°)
137
Syphillis (3°) is caused by
Treponema pallidum
138
Syphillis (3°) develops in
(what part of the nervous system)
* *Posterior columns** of spinal cord
* *Posterior horns** of spinal cord
139
Def: term for the involvement of the spinal cord in 3° syphilis
Tabes dorsalis
140
White/Gray matter of the brain atrophy; neurological dysfunction ensues causing
general paresis
(general paresis of insane)
141
List the most common necrosis that are associated with syphilis in order
1) Gummatous
2) Liquefaction
3) Casseous
142
General paresis Occurs in the ____ matter of the brain
Gray
143
General paresis leads to
dementia
144
Type of necrosis:
Severe glassy or waxy necrosis of skeletal muscles in acute infectious diseases
Zenker’s necrosis
145
Zenker’s necrosis is common in
| (what disease)
Typhoid, Cholera
or
extreme muscle trauma; animal bite
146
Name the disease:
dangerous gastrointestinal disease, usually acquired from contaminated hands or contaminated H2O (3rd most contagious disease)
Typhoid
147
Fat necrosis aka
Steatonecrosis
148
Fat (Steatonecrosis) necrosis is Characteristized by the formation of
calcium soaps
149
calcium soaps are produced when fat is
hydrolyzed into glycerol and fatty acids
150
Example of Fat (Steatonecrosis) necrosis
Pancreonecrosis
151
Define Pancreonecrosis
gallbladder stone blocks bile duct; obstruction leads to degradation of pancreas
152
prognosis of Pancreatonecrosis
death
153
type of necrosis:
occurs in the walls of blood vessels when endothelial and smooth muscle cells are injured and dying
Fibrinoid necrosis
154
Fibrinoid necrosis develops in
immune mediated diseases
or
immunopatholgies
155
Example on Fibrinoid necrosis
Aschoff’s node
156
Define Aschoff’s node
necrosis within the heart muscle, seen in Rheumatic
myocarditis
157
Type of necrosis
Is a serious and potentially life threatening condition that arises when a considerable mass of body tissue dies
Gangrene (gangrenous necrosis)
158
Gangrene (gangrenous necrosis) is a form of _____ necrosis
coagulative
159
Gangrene (gangrenous necrosis) characterized by the presence of
noxious products of anaerobic bacterial metabolism
160
List the 3 types of Gangrene (gangrenous necrosis)
Dry
Wet
Gas
161
Def: a type of gangarene where coagulation is sustained; similar to coagulative necrosis
Dry Gangrene
162
Dry Gangrene Can occur due to
Ischemia – lack of blood supply
Atherosclerosis – narrowing or obliterated blood vessels
Diabetes mellitus – diabetic micro-angiopathy
163
Dry Gangrene is seen in
Systemic sclerosis (a.k.a. Scleroderma)
Buerger’s disease (a.k.a. thromboangiitis obliterans)
Diabetes mellitus
164
what leads to Dry Gangrene in Systemic sclerosis (a.k.a. Scleroderma)
overproduction of collagen at the distal finger tips, obliterating distal blood vessels
165
what leads to Dry Gangrene in Buerger’s disease (a.k.a. thromboangiitis obliterans)
vasculitis of the arteries and veins, often occurs in smoker
166
Diabetes mellitus aka
diabetic microangiopathy
167
Dry gangarene is seen in Pt with iabetes mellitus in
(what body parts)
etremities
kidneys
eyes
168
Def: type of gangrene occurs if the enzymes of invading phagocytic cells break down the necrotic debris and produce some liquefaction
Wet gangrene
169
Example of Wet Gangrene
Intestinal necrosis
Polyarteritis nodosa
Bed sores
170
Def: pressure of the tissue causing decreased blood flow to the areas resulting in cell death is called
Bed sores
171
In Wet Gangrene the blockage of blood flow is more often
(what type of vessels)
venous
172
what kind of bacteria can lead to wet gangrene
Anaerobic:
Clostridium perfringes and Bascillus fusiformis
173
Def: traditional gangrene, anaerobic bacteria in
wounds, obstruction of blood supply or herniation
Intestinal necrosis
(wet gangrene)
174
systemic vasculitis of fingers; naked bones
Polyarteritis nodosa
(wet gangrene)
175
Type of gangrene
bacterial infection that produces gas within the tissues
Gas Gangrene
176
what type of bacteria that can cause gas gangrene
Anaerobic streptococci
Clostridium perfringes
177
Def: Strangulation of stomach or intestines can result in gangrene
hernia
178
Apoptosis is a Greek word means
falling off
179
Apoptosis is pathway of cell death that is induced by
tightly regulated intracellular programming
180
in Apoptosis cells destined to die activate enzymes that degrade
the cells own DNA, nuclear, and cytoplasmic proteins
181
list Normal conditions of apoptosis
The programmed destruction of cells during **embryogenesis**
Hormone-dependent involution in adults =\> **menstruation**
**Cell death** induced by cytotoxic T-cells, ex. to combat **virus infected or cancerous cells**
182
list pathological conditions of apoptosis
Cell injury in certain viral diseases
Pathologic atrophy in parenchymal organs after duct obstruction
183
2 types of Cell Accumulation
Exogenous
Endogenous
184
2 kinde of exogenous pigments (cell accumulation)
Carbon (coal)
Tattooing
185
which kind of exogenous pigments is more common?
Carbon (coal)
186
examples of Carbon (coal) - Exogenous accumulation
Anthracosis
Coal-worker pneumoconiosis
187
Anthracosis This is a term used to
describe a condition, not a condition itself
(Deposition and accumulation of carbon in the tissues)
188
pathology of the lungs caused by scarring (fibrosis) after inhaling some particle is called
Pneumoconiosis
189
what's the risk factors in tattoing?
possible **Allergic** reactionsr, causing a bubbling of the skin
**contaminated** needle
190
List the types of endogenous pigments
Lipofuscin
Melanin
Homogentisic acid
Hemosiderin
Copper
Calcium
191
Lipofuscin (Lipochrome) aka
Wear & Tear
or
Brown atrophy
192
Lipofuscin (Lipochrome) a.k.a. Wear & Tear or Brown atrophy
Represents complexes of:
protein and lipid derived
193
protein and lipid complexes are derived from
free-radical peroxidation of polyunsaturated fats of subcellular membranes
194
Lipofuscin (Lipochrome) Occurs due to
aging or tissue atrophy from injury
195
Lipofuscin pigments color:
Brown-yellowish color
196
Lipofuscin risk factors
None
Not dangerous within the body
197
Melanin – produced by
melanocytes
198
Melanin protect the skin from
UV radiation
199
examples of Homogentisic acid
alkaptonuria
Onchronosis
200
in Homogentisic acid/alkaptonuria, urine turns
urine turns black when exposed to air for ~ 30 min.
201
Hemosiderin is Accumulation in tissues where there is local or systemic excess of \_\_\_\_
iron
202
Hemosiderin represents large aggregates of
ferritin micelles
| (harmless)
203
ferritin (protein) micelles are found in
spleen
pancreas
RBCs
Pituitary, thyroid, sex glands
liver
204
Hemosiderosis – associated with a local excess (systemic overload) of
hemosiderin accumulation in organs and tissue
205
Hemosiderosis effect on pigments and tissue function
can change the pigment of but function is not affected
206
examples of Hemosiderosis
Bruising/ Hematoma – has various amounts of iron accumulation
o Hemolytic anemia
o Blood transfusion reaction – hemolysis due to blood type issues
207
Normal amount of iron in the body is
2-5 grams
208
Normal amount of iron in the liver is
1g
209
The body can handle ____ of iron with no clinical manifestation
\< 20g
210
\> 20 to 50g of iron can lead to tissue damage called
Hemochromatosis
211
Primary hemochromatosis (Genetic) male to female ratio
male 7:1 female
212
Primary hemochromatosis (Genetic) is an increase in iron absorption from
GI tract
213
Primary hemochromatosis (Genetic) leads to
**Liver cirrhosis** – occurs due to stimulation of CT formation by iron
**Pancreas damage** - killing of islets (insulin pd(x)), resulting in diabetes
**DNA damage** – cause neoplasms, hepatoma (liver cancer)
214
an acquired systemic iron overload is called
Secondary Hemochromatosis
215
Secondary Hemochromatosis aka
transfusion reaction
216
Secondary Hemochromatosis main cause
Bantu siderosis
(alcoholic beverage in steel barrels)
217
Accumulation of Copper (Cu) in the body leads to
Wilson’s Disease
218
Wilson’s Disease etiology
genetic
219
is Wilson’s Disease more common in males or females?
males
220
Normal pathway of copper excretion
Copper is absorbed
travels to the liver
binds to α2-globulin forming ceruloplasmin
enters the blood
returns to the liver
Copper and α2-globulin disassociate
copper secreted into bile
221
With Wilson’s the ceruloplasmin is
unable to leave the live
222
Wilson’s Disease symptoms
Liver cirrhosis
Brain damage
Eye damage
223
Wilson’s Disease effect on brain
striatum of the brain, causing Parkinson style symptoms
224
Wilson’s Disease effect on eyes
accumulates in limbus of cornea, known as Kayser-Fleischer rings
225
Wilson’s Disease treatment
D-penicillamine
chelates the copper from cells; but has cytostatic affect (prevent cell replication)
226
D-penicillamine is very dangerous medicine because of
cytolytic effects- inhibits cell replication
227
Deposition of calcium salts into the tissues or between cells (lungs, arteries, veins) is called
Calcification
228
2 Types of calcification are
Metastatic
Dystrophic
229
Deposition of calcium salts into atrophic or necrotic tissue is called
Dystrophic Calcification
230
Examples of Dystrophic Calcification
Ghon’s Focus
Rheumatic fever
Sclerodactyly
Systemic sclerosis
231
how does Ghon’s Focus develop
**TB** bacteria results in **casseous necrosis**, which the immune system **surrounds with lymphocytes**, which will **under go calcification** and can be identified on x-ray of lungs
232
over production of CT replacing normal tissues; calcification of atrophic tissue is called
Systemic sclerosis
233
Systemic sclerosis aka
Scleroderma
234
Systemic sclerosis (a.k.a. Scleroderma) can occur in
face
235
Systemic sclerosis symptoms
lacks ability to show emotion
thinning narrowed lips
vertical wrinkles
atrophic face
236
A condtion where Soft tissue of the hand has a contracted look, claw like, due to dystrophic calcification.
Sclerodactyly
237
a condition wiht Atrophy of the heart, specifically aortic valves, due to calcification
Rheumatic fever
238
Deposition of calcium salt in any tissue other than that which is atrophic or necrotic
Metastatic Calcification
239
Example on metastatic calcification
Kidney stones
240
Metastatic calcification pt will present with
hypercalcemia
241
Metastatic Calcification is caused by
Increased secretion of Parathormone
Destruction of bone
Vitamin D related disorders; Sarcoidosis
Renal failure – secondary Hyperparathyroidism (PTH)
242
Destruction of bone that can lead to metastatic calcification are
Accelerated turnover (Paget’s Disease)
Immobilization
Tumors (Multiple myeloma, Leukemia, Skeletal metastasis)
